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TED talks, The artist who won a Nobel Prize... in medicine - Melanie E. Peffer

The artist who won a Nobel Prize... in medicine - Melanie E. Peffer

In the late 1860s, scientists believed they were on the verge

of uncovering the brain's biggest secret.

They already knew the brain controlled the body through electrical impulses.

The question was, how did these signals travel through the body

without changing or degrading?

It seemed that perfectly transmitting these impulses would require them to travel uninterrupted along some kind of tissue.

This idea, called reticular theory,

imagined the nervous system as a massive web of tissue that physically connected every nerve cell in the body. Reticular theory captivated the field with its elegant simplicity.

But soon, a young artist would cut through this conjecture,

and sketch a bold new vision of how our brains work. 60 years before reticular theory was born,

developments in microscope technology

revealed cells to be the building blocks of organic tissue. This finding was revolutionary,

but early microscopes struggled to provide additional details.

The technology was especially challenging for researchers studying the brain.

Soft nervous tissue was delicate and difficult to work with.

And even when researchers were able to get it under the microscope,

the tissue was so densely packed it was impossible to see much. To improve their view,

scientists began experimenting with special staining techniques designed to provide clarity through contrast. The most effective came courtesy of Camillo Golgi in 1873.

First, Golgi hardened the brain tissue with potassium bichromate to prevent cells from deforming during handling. Then he doused the tissue in silver nitrate, which visibly accumulated in nerve cells.

Known as the “black reaction,”

Golgi's Method finally allowed researchers to see the entire cell body

of what would later be named the neuron.

The stain even highlighted the fibrous branches that shot off from the cell in different directions. Images of these branches became hazy at the ends,

making it difficult to determine exactly how they fit into the larger network.

But Golgi concluded that these branches connected,

forming a web of tissue comprising the entire nervous system.

14 years later, a young scientist and aspiring artist

named Santiago Ramón y Cajal began to build on Golgi's work. While writing a book about microscopic imaging, he came across a picture of a cell treated with Golgi's stain.

Cajal was in awe of its exquisite detail— both as a scientist and an artist.

He soon set out to improve Golgi's stain even further

and create more detailed references for his artwork.

By staining the tissue twice in a specific time frame,

Cajal found he could stain a greater number of neurons with better resolution.

And what these new slides revealed would upend reticular theory—

the branches reaching out from each nerve cell were not physically connected to any other tissue. So how were these individual cells transmitting electrical signals? By studying and sketching them countless times,

Cajal developed a bold, new hypothesis.

Instead of electrical signals traveling uninterrupted across a network of fibers,

he proposed that signals were somehow jumping from cell to cell

in a linear chain of activation.

The idea that electrical signals could travel this way was completely unheard of

when Cajal proposed it in 1889.

However his massive collection of drawings supported his hypothesis from every angle.

And in the mid-1900s, electron microscopy further supported this idea

by revealing a membrane around each nerve cell keeping it separate from its neighbors.

This formed the basis of the “neuron doctrine,” which proposed the brain's tissue was made up of many discrete cells, instead of one connected tissue.

The neuron doctrine laid the foundation for modern neuroscience, and allowed later researchers to discover that electrical impulses are constantly converted between chemical and electrical signals

as they travel from neuron to neuron.

Both Golgi and Cajal received the Nobel Prize for their separate, but shared discoveries, and researchers still apply their theories and methods today. In this way, their legacies remain connected as discrete elements

in a vast network of knowledge.

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The artist who won a Nobel Prize... in medicine - Melanie E. Peffer |Künstlerin||||||||||Peffer(1) |||||Nobel|Ödül||tıp alanında|Melanie E Pe||Peffer ||quem|||||||Melanie E Peffer||Peffer Der Künstler, der den Nobelpreis gewann... in Medizin - Melanie E. Peffer La artista que ganó un Premio Nobel... de medicina - Melanie E. Peffer L'artiste qui a obtenu un prix Nobel... de médecine - Melanie E. Peffer ノーベル医学賞を受賞した芸術家 - メラニー・E・ペファー 노벨상을 수상한 예술가... 의학 분야 - 멜라니 E. 페퍼 Nobelio premiją už mediciną gavęs menininkas - Melanie E. Peffer O artista que ganhou um Prémio Nobel... de medicina - Melanie E. Peffer Художник, получивший Нобелевскую премию... по медицине - Мелани Э. Пеффер Konstnären som fick Nobelpriset... i medicin - Melanie E. Peffer Nobel Ödülü kazanan sanatçı... tıp alanında - Melanie E. Peffer 获得诺贝尔奖的艺术家......医学奖 - Melanie E. Peffer 諾貝爾醫學獎的藝術家 - Melanie E. Peffer

In the late 1860s, scientists believed they were on the verge ||||||||||Schwelle ||||||||||eşiklerinde em (1)|a|final da||os cientistas||||||à beira A fines de la década de 1860, los científicos creían que estaban a punto В конце 1860-х годов ученые считали, что находятся на грани

of uncovering the brain's biggest secret. |açığa çıkar||beynin|| de|descobrindo|||| de descubrir el mayor secreto del cerebro. раскрытия самого большого секрета мозга.

They already knew the brain controlled the body through electrical impulses. ||||||||||impulslar ||||||||||impulsos elétricos Ya sabían que el cerebro controlaba el cuerpo a través de impulsos eléctricos.

The question was, how did these signals travel through the body ||||||sinyaller|||| |||como||||||| La pregunta era, ¿cómo viajaban estas señales a través del cuerpo?

without changing or degrading? |||herabsetzen |||aşağılayıcı |||degradando sin cambiar o degradar?

It seemed that perfectly transmitting these impulses |||mükemmel bir|iletmekte olan||uyarılar ||||transmitindo perfeitamente|| Parecía que transmitiendo perfectamente estos impulsos Казалось, прекрасно передающие эти импульсы would require them to travel uninterrupted along some kind of tissue. ||||||||||Gewebe |gerektirecektir||||kesintisiz|||||doku ||||||||||tejido orgánico |||||sem interrupção||||| requeriría que viajaran sin interrupciones a lo largo de algún tipo de tejido. потребовало бы, чтобы они непрерывно путешествовали по какой-то ткани.

This idea, called reticular theory, |||retikulär| ||adlandırılan|retiküler|teori |||reticular teórica| Esta idea, llamada teoría reticular, Эта идея, названная ретикулярной теорией,

imagined the nervous system as a massive web of tissue hayal edilen||sinirli||||büyük|ağ||doku imaginó el sistema nervioso como una red masiva de tejido представлял нервную систему массивной паутиной тканей that physically connected every nerve cell in the body. ||||sinir|hücre||| que conectaba físicamente cada célula nerviosa del cuerpo. которые физически соединяли каждую нервную клетку в теле. Reticular theory captivated the field with its elegant simplicity. ||fesselte|||||| Retiküler||büyüledi||alanı|||şık|sadelik güzelli ||cativou||||||elegante simplicidade La teoría reticular cautivó al campo con su elegante simplicidad. Ретикулярная теория покорила ученых своей элегантной простотой.

But soon, a young artist would cut through this conjecture, |||||||||varsayım |||||||||suposição Pero pronto, un joven artista acabaría con esta conjetura, Но вскоре молодой художник прорубил эту догадку,

and sketch a bold new vision of how our brains work. |skizzieren||||||||| |taslağını çıkar||cesur||||||| |esboço||||||||| y esbozar una nueva y audaz visión de cómo funciona nuestro cerebro. и набросать смелое новое видение того, как работает наш мозг. 60 years before reticular theory was born, ||retiküler||| 60 años antes de que naciera la teoría reticular, За 60 лет до рождения ретикулярной теории,

developments in microscope technology ||mikroskop teknolojisi| avanços||| desarrollos en la tecnología de microscopios разработки в области микроскопии

revealed cells to be the building blocks of organic tissue. açığa çık||||||||| ||||||||orgânica| reveló que las células son los componentes básicos del tejido orgánico. показали, что клетки являются строительными блоками органических тканей. This finding was revolutionary, |||devrim niteliğinde Este hallazgo fue revolucionario, Это открытие было революционным,

but early microscopes struggled to provide additional details. |||hatten Schwierigkeiten|||| ||mikroskoplar|zorlandı||sağlamak|ek detaylar| ||os microscópios||||| pero los primeros microscopios tuvieron problemas para proporcionar detalles adicionales. но первые микроскопы изо всех сил пытались предоставить дополнительные детали.

The technology was especially challenging for researchers studying the brain. ||||zorlayıcı||||| La tecnología fue especialmente desafiante para los investigadores que estudian el cerebro. Технология была особенно сложной для исследователей, изучающих мозг.

Soft nervous tissue was delicate and difficult to work with. ||||empfindlich||||| yumuşak||doku||nazik||||| El tejido nervioso blando era delicado y difícil de trabajar.

And even when researchers were able to get it under the microscope, |||||başardılar|||||| E incluso cuando los investigadores pudieron ponerlo bajo el microscopio,

the tissue was so densely packed it was impossible to see much. ||||yoğun bir şekilde|sıkıca yerle|||||| ||||densamente||||||| el tejido estaba tan denso que era imposible ver mucho. ткань была настолько плотно упакована, что было невозможно увидеть многое. To improve their view, |görüşlerini gelişt||görüşlerini Para mejorar su vista, Чтобы улучшить их обзор,

scientists began experimenting with special staining techniques |||||Färbetechniken| ||deney yapmaya|||boyama| ||experimentando|||coloração| los científicos comenzaron a experimentar con técnicas especiales de tinción designed to provide clarity through contrast. |||açıklık||karşıtlık |||clareza|| diseñado para proporcionar claridad a través del contraste. предназначен для обеспечения четкости за счет контраста. The most effective came courtesy of Camillo Golgi in 1873. ||||Dank||Camillo Golgi|Golgi| ||||sayesinde||Camillo Golgi|Golgi| ||||graças a||Camillo Golgi|Golgi| El más efectivo fue cortesía de Camillo Golgi en 1873. Наиболее эффективным был любезно предоставлен Камилло Гольджи в 1873 году.

First, Golgi hardened the brain tissue with potassium bichromate |||||||Kaliumbichromat| ||sertleştirdi|||||potasyum|bikromat ||endureceu|||||brometo de potássio|bicroamato de potássio Primero, Golgi endureció el tejido cerebral con bicromato de potasio Ten eerste verhardde Golgi het hersenweefsel met kaliumbichromaat Сначала Гольджи затвердел мозговую ткань бихроматом калия. Спочатку Гольджі зміцнив тканину мозку за допомогою біхромату калію to prevent cells from deforming during handling. |önlemek|||şekil değiştirm||işlem sırasında ||||deformando-se||manipulação para evitar que las células se deformen durante la manipulación. для предотвращения деформации клеток во время обработки. Then he doused the tissue in silver nitrate, ||tauchte||||| ||gümüş nitrat|||||gümüş nitrat ||mergulhou|||||nitrato de prata Luego roció el tejido con nitrato de plata, Затем он облил ткань азотнокислым серебром, which visibly accumulated in nerve cells. |gözle görülür|birikmiş||| ||acumulou-se||| que visiblemente acumulado en las células nerviosas. которые заметно накапливались в нервных клетках.

Known as the “black reaction,” ||||reaksiyon Conocida como la “reacción negra”, Известна как «черная реакция».

Golgi's Method finally allowed researchers to see the entire cell body Golgi-Methode|||||||||| Golgi'nin||||||||tüm|hücre| de Golgi|||||||||| El Método de Golgi finalmente permitió a los investigadores ver todo el cuerpo celular Метод Гольджи, наконец, позволил исследователям увидеть все тело клетки

of what would later be named the neuron. |||||||Neuron(1) |||||||nöron |||||||neurônio de lo que luego se llamaría la neurona. того, что позже будет названо нейроном.

The stain even highlighted the fibrous branches |Fleck||||faserigen| |lekesi|hatta|vurguladı||lifli|dalları |mancha||||fibrosas|ramificações fibrosas La mancha incluso resaltó las ramas fibrosas Пятно даже выделило волокнистые ветки that shot off from the cell in different directions. |||||hücre||| que salió disparado de la celda en diferentes direcciones. которые выстрелили из клетки в разные стороны. Images of these branches became hazy at the ends, |||||bulanık||| |||as ramificações||nebulosas||| Las imágenes de estas ramas se volvieron borrosas en los extremos, Образы этих ветвей стали туманными на концах,

making it difficult to determine exactly how they fit into the larger network. ||||belirlemek||||uyum sağladıkları||||ağ lo que dificulta determinar exactamente cómo encajan en la red más grande. что затрудняет точное определение того, как они вписываются в более крупную сеть.

But Golgi concluded that these branches connected, ||sonuçlandırdı||||bağlandığını ||concluiu|||as ramificações| Pero Golgi concluyó que estas ramas se conectaban, Но Гольджи пришел к выводу, что эти ветви соединялись,

forming a web of tissue comprising the entire nervous system. |||||umfassend|||| oluşan||||doku|içeren|||| |||||que inclui|||| formando una red de tejido que comprende todo el sistema nervioso. образуя паутину ткани, включающую всю нервную систему.

14 years later, a young scientist and aspiring artist ||||||hevesli sanatçı| ||||cientista jovem||aspirante a| 14 años después, un joven científico y aspirante a artista 14 лет спустя молодой ученый и начинающий художник

named Santiago Ramón y Cajal began to build on Golgi's work. |Santiago Ramón y Cajal|Ramón|y|Cajal|||||| |Santiago|Ramón|ve|Cajal|||||| |Santiago Ramón y Cajal|Ramón||Cajal|||||| llamado Santiago Ramón y Cajal comenzó a construir sobre la obra de Golgi. по имени Сантьяго Рамон-и-Кахаль начал строить работу Гольджи. While writing a book about microscopic imaging, ||||hakkında|mikroskobik|görüntüleme |||||microscópica|imagem microscópica Mientras escribía un libro sobre imágenes microscópicas, Во время написания книги о микроскопических изображениях, he came across a picture of a cell treated with Golgi's stain. ||karşısında||||||boyanmış|||boya se encontró con una imagen de una célula tratada con la tinción de Golgi. он наткнулся на изображение клетки, обработанной красителем Гольджи.

Cajal was in awe of its exquisite detail— both as a scientist and an artist. ||||||exquisiten|||||||| |||hayranlık içinde|||olağanüstü|||||||| |||admirado|||exquisita|||||||| Cajal estaba asombrado por su exquisito detalle, tanto como científico como como artista. Кахаль был в восторге от его изысканных деталей — и как ученый, и как художник.

He soon set out to improve Golgi's stain even further ||yola çıktı|||||boya|| Pronto se dispuso a mejorar aún más la tinción de Golgi. Вскоре он решил еще больше улучшить пятно Гольджи.

and create more detailed references for his artwork. |||daha ayrıntılı||||sanat eseri |||||||obra de arte y crear referencias más detalladas para su obra de arte. и создайте более подробные ссылки на его работы.

By staining the tissue twice in a specific time frame, |boyama||doku||||belirli||zaman dilimi Al teñir el tejido dos veces en un período de tiempo específico, Окрашивая ткань дважды в течение определенного периода времени,

Cajal found he could stain a greater number of neurons with better resolution. ||||boyamak||||||||çözünürlük ||||tingir|||||||| Cajal descubrió que podía teñir un mayor número de neuronas con mejor resolución. Кахаль обнаружил, что может окрашивать большее количество нейронов с лучшим разрешением.

And what these new slides revealed would upend reticular theory— |||||||umstoßen|retikuläre Theorie| ||||slaytlar|açıklıyordu||altüst etmek|retiküler| ||||lâminas|||reverteria a|| Y lo que revelaron estas nuevas diapositivas cambiaría la teoría reticular: И то, что показали эти новые слайды, перевернет ретикулярную теорию.

the branches reaching out from each nerve cell |dallar|uzanan||||| |as ramificações|||||| las ramas que salen de cada célula nerviosa ветви, отходящие от каждой нервной клетки were not physically connected to any other tissue. |||||||doku no estaban conectados físicamente a ningún otro tejido. не были физически связаны с какой-либо другой тканью. So how were these individual cells transmitting electrical signals? ||||||iletim sağlıy|| Entonces, ¿cómo transmitían señales eléctricas estas células individuales? Так как же эти отдельные клетки передавали электрические сигналы? By studying and sketching them countless times, |||skizzieren||| |||çizerek||sayısız| |||||incontables| |||esboçando||| Al estudiarlos y dibujarlos innumerables veces, Изучая и рисуя их бесчисленное количество раз,

Cajal developed a bold, new hypothesis. |||||hipotez Cajal desarrolló una hipótesis nueva y audaz. Кахаль разработал смелую новую гипотезу.

Instead of electrical signals traveling uninterrupted across a network of fibers, |||||kesintisiz|bir ağ boyunca||||lifler ||||||||||fibras ópticas En lugar de señales eléctricas que viajan ininterrumpidamente a través de una red de fibras, Вместо электрических сигналов, непрерывно распространяющихся по сети волокон,

he proposed that signals were somehow jumping from cell to cell |önerdi||||||||| propuso que las señales saltaban de alguna manera de una célula a otra он предположил, что сигналы каким-то образом прыгают от ячейки к ячейке

in a linear chain of activation. ||doğrusal|||aktivasyon ||linear|||ativação en una cadena lineal de activación. в линейной цепи активации.

The idea that electrical signals could travel this way was completely unheard of |||||||||||duyulmamış| |||||||||||desconhecida| La idea de que las señales eléctricas pudieran viajar de esta manera era completamente desconocida. Мысль о том, что электрические сигналы могут передаваться таким образом, была совершенно неслыханной.

when Cajal proposed it in 1889. ||önerdi|| ||propôs|| cuando Cajal lo propuso en 1889. когда Кахаль предложил его в 1889 году.

However his massive collection of drawings supported his hypothesis from every angle. |||||Zeichnungen|||||| ||büyük|||çizimler|||hipotezini|||açıdan |||||desenhos|||||| Sin embargo, su enorme colección de dibujos apoyó su hipótesis desde todos los ángulos. Однако его огромная коллекция рисунков подтверждала его гипотезу со всех сторон.

And in the mid-1900s, electron microscopy further supported this idea |||||elektron|mikroskopi|daha fazla||| 그리고|||||||||| |||||microscopia eletrônica|microscopia eletrônica|apoiou ainda||| Y a mediados del siglo XX, la microscopía electrónica apoyó aún más esta idea. А в середине 1900-х годов электронная микроскопия еще больше поддержала эту идею.

by revealing a membrane around each nerve cell |açığa çıkar||zarı|||| |revelando||membrana|||| al revelar una membrana alrededor de cada célula nerviosa открывая мембрану вокруг каждой нервной клетки keeping it separate from its neighbors. manteniéndolo separado de sus vecinos. держать его отдельно от соседей.

This formed the basis of the “neuron doctrine,” |||||||doktrini |||||||doutrina neuronal Esto formó la base de la "doctrina de la neurona", Это легло в основу «нейронной доктрины». which proposed the brain's tissue was made up of many discrete cells, ||||||||||diskreten| ||||dokusu||||||ayrı| ||||||||||discretas unidades| que proponía que el tejido del cerebro estaba formado por muchas células discretas, который предположил, что ткань мозга состоит из множества отдельных клеток, instead of one connected tissue. ||||doku ||||tejido conectado en lugar de un tejido conectado. вместо одной связанной ткани.

The neuron doctrine laid the foundation for modern neuroscience, |||kurdu||temelini|||sinir bilimi |||estabeleceu||||| La doctrina de la neurona sentó las bases de la neurociencia moderna, Учение о нейронах заложило основу современной нейронауки. and allowed later researchers to discover that electrical impulses ||||||||impulslar y permitió a los investigadores posteriores descubrir que los impulsos eléctricos и позволили более поздним исследователям обнаружить, что электрические импульсы are constantly converted between chemical and electrical signals |sürekli olarak|||||| se convierten constantemente entre señales químicas y eléctricas постоянно преобразуются между химическими и электрическими сигналами

as they travel from neuron to neuron. mientras viajan de neurona en neurona. по мере их перемещения от нейрона к нейрону.

Both Golgi and Cajal received the Nobel Prize Tanto Golgi como Cajal recibieron el Premio Nobel for their separate, but shared discoveries, ||ayrı|||keşifleri |||||descobertas individuais por sus descubrimientos separados, pero compartidos, за их отдельные, но общие открытия, and researchers still apply their theories and methods today. |||anwenden||||| |||uyguluyorlar||||| |||||teorias||| y los investigadores aún aplican sus teorías y métodos en la actualidad. In this way, their legacies remain connected as discrete elements ||||||||diskrete| ||||mirasları|||||öğeler ||||legados||||| De esta manera, sus legados permanecen conectados como elementos discretos Таким образом, их наследие остается связанным как отдельные элементы.

in a vast network of knowledge. ||geniş||| en una vasta red de conocimiento. в обширной сети знаний.