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Crash Course European History, Catholic Counter-Reformation: Crash Course European History #9 (1)

Catholic Counter-Reformation: Crash Course European History #9 (1)

Hi I'm John Green and this is Crash Course European History.

So, last week we took a break from religion to show that amidst warfare and bitter controversy

over doctrine, people were inventing and innovating and enslaving.

Europeans were eating new foods, hanging out more in cities, and making advances in commerce

and legal protections for some people.

While also inventing systems of oppression to enslave others.

Years ago, historians firmly believed that the Protestant religion promoted capitalism—that

is, all the business and commerce that were springing up at the time were caused by the

Reformation.

Some historians still find that Martin Luther's other worldly interests expanded to this-worldly

activities, like reading, in ways that boosted prosperity, but the rise of capitalism was

complex, and also it happened in non-Protestant communities.

So today, let's shift perspectives back to how the Catholics were handling all this.

Were they ready to simply surrender their influence in European society?

Did the Church just turn its back on this momentous challenge of Protestantism and continue

down its much criticized path?

No.

They responded.

Leaders and the faithful created a sturdy, even strident Catholic-Reformation, or Counter-Reformation,

that also provided a little grease to the wheels of commerce.

And today we're gonna look at the Catholic Reformation and how it influenced not just

Europe but the world.

INTRO

The task of reform fell to Pope Paul III, who like many Renaissance popes lived in the

lap of luxury and engaged in corrupt practices such as appointing two of his grandsons cardinals

in their early teens.

He only hired the best people.

Also, why does this pope have grandsons?

That reminds me of the great last words of the Irish poet, Brendan Behan.

A nun was giving him an injection, and he turned to her and said, “bless you sister.

May all your sons be bishops.”

Then he died.

But Pope Paul III knew, partly because of external pressure, that the Catholic Church

needed to shape up.

Several attempts at undertaking reforms in formal meetings were blocked by powerful individuals

who liked the status quo.

Powerful individuals and the status quo: The greatest love story of this or any time.

But the church was tired of seeing its overall power decrease, and so in 1545, the Council

of Trent, composed of high church officials, assembled to stop the Protestant momentum.

And this council continued until 1563, a series of meetings that lasted so long that by the

time it was over, both Pope Paul III and his successor Julius III had died.

I've definitely had meetings that felt like they were 18 years long.

I'm not sure if they were, though.

So, among the adherents to Protestantism were some of the most powerful princes and members

of the nobility in Europe.

And some Catholic leaders wanted those powerful Protestants on their side.

But eventually the council eventually decided not to compromise.

Instead, the pronouncements of the Council of Trent were stark and emphatic.

Already in 1542 while waiting for a council actually to get organized, the papacy had

expanded the work of the Inquisition, which had been established in the 13th century to

stamp out heresies in southern France and Italy.

But now the Inquisition targeted Protestants and searched for heresy also among conquered

people in the New World.

The Council also affirmed principles of transubstantiation—that is, the belief that the blood and wine of

the communion sacrament become the actual body and blood of Jesus.

It upheld the centrality of the seven sacraments, and the selling of indulgences stuck around

too.

Clergy were to remain celibate and chaste--unlike most Protestant clerics.

And all Catholics were to live by faith /and/ practice good works as their path to salvation—not

by faith alone like the Protestants.

The church also began establishing seminaries where priests could become more informed in

Catholic theology.

And reformers felt this training was sorely needed for priests because they were being

confronted by complicated Protestant challenges to Catholic doctrine.

And the Church began the Papal Index, a list of books that Catholics were forbidden to

read; In addition the Church reached deeper into society when it began to further regulate

marriages.

With the creation of a list of forbidden books and the declaration of power over marriage,

the Counter-Reformation took Catholicism from a point of weakness and actually expanded

its power.

At least over those who believed.

Even before these events, what would become a major bulwark of Catholicism and its Counter-Reformation

was taking shape.

Because in the 1520s, after being shot as a soldier in one of Spain's wars, a Spanish

nobleman took up the challenge to fortify Catholicism.

Just as Luther wrestled with his faith, Ignatius of Loyola suffered spiritual agonies and emerged

a charismatic leader--but unlike Luther, Ignatius and his followers remained loyal to the Catholic

Church.

In 1540, the Pope declared Ignatius's followers a religious order called the Society of Jesus

or “Jesuits.”

Many pre-existing Catholic religious orders were rededicating themselves to protect and

nourish their faith.

But Loyola's approach was especially effective given the challenges from Protestantism in

the 1520s and thereafter.

First, because he organized and ran his group like an army around a hierarchy of command;

joining required several years of training and a strict code of discipline.

And all of this was timely given the Church's reputation for corruption, lax morals, and

in many cases, priestly incompetence, including ignorance of Latin.

That wasn't a problem with the Jesuits.

Second, the Jesuits founded schools where humanistic education thrived alongside religious

instruction.

These became a mechanism for combining the latest in intellectual practice with the revitalization

and reaffirmation of Catholic theology, and it was important because one of the attractions

of Protestantism was its emphasis on broader literacy so that everyone could directly connect

with scripture.

The Jesuits argued that Catholics could also spread education--which is why incidentally

there are so many Loyola Universities around the world.

And that brings us to our final point: In addition to reforming Catholicism in Europe,

the Jesuits undertook globalizing the faith as a regular part of their mission.

Through them, Catholicism truly did become a world religion, reaching India, and Japan,

and Africa, and the New World.

And this Jesuit activism in establishing global relationships would eventually transform Europe

in ways that have only recently gained the attention of historians.

Let's go to the Thought Bubble.

The Jesuits interacted worldwide with an eye on both short and long-term results--they

wanted to convert souls, but they also wanted through schools to shape the way that young

people learned, and thus their perspective.

It's important to remember that no education is morally neutral--what you learn about shapes

the way you look at the world.

And as they traveled, the Jesuits were in constant touch with one another comparing

best practices, and they also adapted different strategies to different parts of the world

as their order spread across the globe.

They studied local languages before approaching people and in many cases took elements from

local beliefs and tried to persuade those they wished to convert that Catholic beliefs

were basically identical to local ones.

And it was effective.

In China, there were 38,000 converts to Catholicism by 1633.

By 1650, there were over a hundred thousand.

Once the Jesuits established these global contacts, they produced reports, first in

Latin but then translated into local European languages, and their work created a Eurocentric

globalization that went way beyond religion.

For example, they became an early version of industrial spies when it came to producing

porcelain, reporting back from China to Europe about the processes that went in to making

high-quality porcelain.

Spreading Catholicism was their mission, but the Jesuits were among those advancing commercial

and agricultural development as well.

Thanks, Thought Bubble.

Many Catholics really took the Church's reforms to heart, intensifying their devotions,

sometimes in ways that also helped further the religion's influence around the world.

Among the most renowned was the Spanish mystic and nun Saint Teresa of Avila, who had a very

long birth name that I will not attempt to pronounce.

I mean, mispronouncing things is my thing, but there's no reason to go down that road.

At twenty, she escaped the confines of her home where she was recuperating from one of

her many, and lifelong, bouts of illness to join the Carmelite order of nuns.

But once there, she balked at the superficiality and high society life of constant visits and

fancy food.

She began to live out the reformed Church's rededication to faith and good works, being

extremely strict in her practice.

She was a proponent of self-flagellation ceremonies--self-flagellation being the act of hitting one's self with

a whip in imitation of Christ's suffering at the cross.

And she became an inspiration particularly after church leaders had her write down her

spiritual experiences in several books that have now become Counter-Reformation classics,

such as Way of Perfection and The Book of Foundations.

At the same time, she went about founding new “discalceate” (shoeless or barefoot)

Carmelite religious orders, restoring austerity and strictness to religious life.

The Council of Trent had also issued a statement about art, advising that it needed to connect

with ordinary people, including the poor.

The aim was not to produce subtle or erudite symbolism but to strike emotions, inducing

awe and evoking the power and majesty of the divine.

[[TV St Peters Square]] Gian Lorenzo Bernini produced such effects,

for example in the piazza in front of St. Peter's Basilica.

It features massed columns, which produce a dramatic setting for papal ritual.

Protestants had smashed ornate statuary of saints and the holy family and instead created

simple, unadorned places of worship.

But Catholics embraced majestic religious interiors, enhancing religious figures through

the use of light and shade in paintings of Jesus, angels, saints, and the royalty surrounding

the divine-- All of which were part of a new style called

baroque.

Did the world just open?

Is there a tiny little baby Jesus dressed up fancy back there?

Indeed, it is the Infant of Prague, or at least a three dollar recreation of it...

So you can see here, this baby Jesus is in a very fancy dress, and I...listen...if I

were a tiny baby Jesus, I would wear this fancy dress, but if you've read the gospels,

you'll know that like, this is not how tiny baby Jesus dressed.

It is, however, super baroque, emphasizing the majesty of the divine.

And religious statuary like this also expressed the intensity of the Counter-Reformation and

its leading figures.

Bernini's statue of St. Teresa of Avila, for instance, would seem to contradict the

asceticism of rejecting ones shoes.

Yet it expressed the ecstatic relationship with the divine and an overflow of feeling

and belief.

Likewise, baroque music expressed complexity through the use of counterpoint and emotional

and thunderous chords that filled parishioners—both illiterate and learned--with religious awe.

One artist who took up the baroque style, some would say with a vengeance, was Artemisia

Gentileschi.

Trained by her father, Orazio, Gentileschi was raped by a man who'd been hired to give

her additional instruction.

She herself was tortured with thumbscrews by the court in order to ensure that she was

telling the truth when her father brought suit against the rapist.

One of the few ways to get revenge...painting.

The frightening “Judith Slaying Holofernes” for instance shows the biblical heroine and

her maid getting revenge on the general Holofernes who threatened her people's survival.

From the dramatic imagery to the high contrast of dark and light, this painting is exemplary

of counter-reformation art--it evokes the senses and an emotional connection to God's

word, and it ain't subtle.

So, between the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation, people obsessively confronted some of the

major issues of human existence, right?

Faith, the divine, and the human conduct that should accompany religious belief, and we're

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Catholic Counter-Reformation: Crash Course European History #9 (1) Contrarreforma católica: Curso acelerado de Historia Europea #9 (1) Contre-réforme catholique : Cours accéléré d'histoire européenne #9 (1) Controriforma cattolica: Corso accelerato di storia europea #9 (1) カトリックの反宗教改革クラッシュコース ヨーロッパ史 (1) Contra-Reforma Católica: Curso Rápido de História Europeia #9 (1) Католицька контрреформація: Прискорений курс європейської історії #9 (1) 天主教反宗教改革:欧洲历史速成班#9 (1) 天主教反宗教改革:歐洲歷史速成班#9 (1)

Hi I'm John Green and this is Crash Course European History.

So, last week we took a break from religion to show that amidst warfare and bitter controversy |||||||||||||Kriegführung||| ||||||||||||in the midst of||||争议

over doctrine, people were inventing and innovating and enslaving. |belief system|||||creating new ideas|| 教義をめぐって、人々は発明し、革新し、奴隷化した。

Europeans were eating new foods, hanging out more in cities, and making advances in commerce

and legal protections for some people. そして一部の人々のための法的保護。

While also inventing systems of oppression to enslave others. その一方で、他者を奴隷化するための抑圧システムを発明している。

Years ago, historians firmly believed that the Protestant religion promoted capitalism—that 数年前、歴史家たちはプロテスタント宗教が資本主義を促進したと固く信じていた。

is, all the business and commerce that were springing up at the time were caused by the つまり、当時勃興していたすべてのビジネスと商業は、このような「ヴェニスの覇権」によって引き起こされたのである。

Reformation. 宗教改革。

Some historians still find that Martin Luther's other worldly interests expanded to this-worldly 歴史家の中には、マルティン・ルターの別世界的な関心が、この世的な関心にまで広がっていったとする者もいる。

activities, like reading, in ways that boosted prosperity, but the rise of capitalism was |||||||prosperity|||||| しかし、資本主義の台頭は、読書のような、繁栄を促進するような活動を促進した。

complex, and also it happened in non-Protestant communities. それはプロテスタント以外のコミュニティでも起こった。

So today, let's shift perspectives back to how the Catholics were handling all this. そこで今日は、カトリックがこの問題にどう対処していたかに視点を戻してみよう。

Were they ready to simply surrender their influence in European society? 彼らはヨーロッパ社会における影響力を放棄する準備ができていたのだろうか?

Did the Church just turn its back on this momentous challenge of Protestantism and continue |||||||||significant||||| 教会はプロテスタンティズムのこの重大な挑戦に背を向け、このまま続けたのだろうか?

down its much criticized path? 批判されるような道を歩むのか?

No.

They responded. 彼らはこう答えた。

Leaders and the faithful created a sturdy, even strident Catholic-Reformation, or Counter-Reformation, ||||||strong||loud and forceful||||| 指導者たちと信徒たちは、強固な、さらには激しいカトリック改革、あるいは反宗教改革を作り上げた、

that also provided a little grease to the wheels of commerce. |||||lubrication||||| それはまた、商業の歯車に少し油を差すことにもなった。

And today we're gonna look at the Catholic Reformation and how it influenced not just

Europe but the world.

INTRO

The task of reform fell to Pope Paul III, who like many Renaissance popes lived in the ||||||||||||Renaissance|||| 教皇パウロ3世は、多くのルネサンス期の教皇と同様に、この改革を担当した。

lap of luxury and engaged in corrupt practices such as appointing two of his grandsons cardinals |||||||||||||||红衣主教 贅沢の限りを尽くし、2人の孫を枢機卿に任命するなどの汚職に手を染めた。

in their early teens. 10代前半で。

He only hired the best people. 彼は優秀な人材しか雇わなかった。

Also, why does this pope have grandsons? また、なぜこの法王には孫がいるのか?

That reminds me of the great last words of the Irish poet, Brendan Behan. |||||||||||||Brendan Behan アイルランドの詩人、ブレンダン・ビーハンの偉大な最後の言葉を思い出す。

A nun was giving him an injection, and he turned to her and said, “bless you sister. ||||||注射|||||||||| 修道女が彼に注射を打っていた。

May all your sons be bishops.” |||||主教 あなたの息子たちが皆、司教になりますように」。

Then he died.

But Pope Paul III knew, partly because of external pressure, that the Catholic Church しかし、教皇パウロ3世は、外圧もあって、カトリック教会が

needed to shape up. シェイプアップが必要だった。

Several attempts at undertaking reforms in formal meetings were blocked by powerful individuals |||implementing||||||||| 正式な会議で改革を行おうとしたいくつかの試みは、有力者によって阻止された。

who liked the status quo. 現状が好きだった人たちだ。

Powerful individuals and the status quo: The greatest love story of this or any time. ||||status quo|||||||||| 権力者と現状維持:今も昔も最高のラブストーリー。

But the church was tired of seeing its overall power decrease, and so in 1545, the Council しかし、教会はその全体的な権力が低下していくのを目の当たりにして嫌気がさし、1545年に公会議が開かれた。

of Trent, composed of high church officials, assembled to stop the Protestant momentum. |||||||gathered together|||||movement プロテスタントの勢いを止めるため、教会高官からなるトレント会議が開かれた。

And this council continued until 1563, a series of meetings that lasted so long that by the この会議は1563年まで続いた。

time it was over, both Pope Paul III and his successor Julius III had died. それが終わる頃には、教皇パウロ3世も後継者ユリウス3世も亡くなっていた。

I've definitely had meetings that felt like they were 18 years long. 確かに、18年分の長さを感じるミーティングをしたことがある。

I'm not sure if they were, though. でも、そうだったかどうかはわからない。

So, among the adherents to Protestantism were some of the most powerful princes and members |||支持者||||||||||| プロテスタントの信奉者の中には、最も有力な王侯や会員もいた。

of the nobility in Europe. ヨーロッパの貴族の。

And some Catholic leaders wanted those powerful Protestants on their side.

But eventually the council eventually decided not to compromise. ||||||||妥协 しかし、最終的に評議会は妥協しないことを決定した。

Instead, the pronouncements of the Council of Trent were stark and emphatic. |||||||||明显的||强烈的 その代わり、トレント公会議での宣言は厳しく、強調されたものだった。

Already in 1542 while waiting for a council actually to get organized, the papacy had ||||||||||||the papacy| 実際に公会議が組織されるのを待っていた1542年、教皇庁はすでに次のようなことを行っていた。

expanded the work of the Inquisition, which had been established in the 13th century to |||||Inquisition||||||||| 13世紀に設立された異端審問の仕事を拡大した。

stamp out heresies in southern France and Italy. stamp out||异端||||| 南フランスとイタリアで異端を一掃。

But now the Inquisition targeted Protestants and searched for heresy also among conquered |||宗教裁判所||||||||| しかし、今や異端審問はプロテスタントを標的にし、征服された人々の間でも異端を探した。

people in the New World.

The Council also affirmed principles of transubstantiation—that is, the belief that the blood and wine of ||||||transubstantiation|||||||||| 公会議ではまた、「実体移行」の原則も確認された。

the communion sacrament become the actual body and blood of Jesus. |圣餐|圣餐|||||||| 聖餐式は、イエスの実際の体と血となる。

It upheld the centrality of the seven sacraments, and the selling of indulgences stuck around |emphasized||importance||||sacraments|||||赎罪券|| 7つの秘跡の中心性を支持し、免罪符の販売に固執した。

too.

Clergy were to remain celibate and chaste--unlike most Protestant clerics. 神职人员||||独身||pure||||clergy members 聖職者は独身を貫き、貞節を守らなければならなかった--プロテスタントの聖職者とは違って。

And all Catholics were to live by faith /and/ practice good works as their path to salvation—not そして、すべてのカトリック信者は、信仰によって生き、善行を実践することが救いへの道である。

by faith alone like the Protestants.

The church also began establishing seminaries where priests could become more informed in |||||神学院||priests|||||

Catholic theology.

And reformers felt this training was sorely needed for priests because they were being ||||||greatly|||priests|||| そして改革者たちは、司祭の訓練が切実に必要だと考えた。

confronted by complicated Protestant challenges to Catholic doctrine. faced|||||||教义 カトリックの教義に対するプロテスタントの複雑な挑戦に直面した。

And the Church began the Papal Index, a list of books that Catholics were forbidden to |||||教皇|Index||||||||| そして教会は、カトリック教徒が読むことを禁じられている書籍のリストである教皇インデックスを始めた。

read; In addition the Church reached deeper into society when it began to further regulate さらに、教会は社会的な規制を強化し、より深く社会に踏み込んでいった。

marriages.

With the creation of a list of forbidden books and the declaration of power over marriage, 禁書リストの作成と、結婚に対する権力の宣言である、

the Counter-Reformation took Catholicism from a point of weakness and actually expanded 反宗教改革はカトリシズムを弱体化させ、実際に拡大させた。

its power.

At least over those who believed.

Even before these events, what would become a major bulwark of Catholicism and its Counter-Reformation |||||||||stronghold|||||| これらの出来事の前にも、カトリックとその反宗教改革の主要な防波堤となるものがあった。

was taking shape.

Because in the 1520s, after being shot as a soldier in one of Spain's wars, a Spanish というのも、1520年代、スペインのある戦争で兵士として射殺された後、スペイン人兵士が、その戦争に参加したのである。 Porque na década de 1520, depois de ter sido baleado como soldado numa das guerras de Espanha, um espanhol

nobleman took up the challenge to fortify Catholicism. nobleman||||||strengthen| 貴族はカトリシズムを強化するための挑戦を始めた。

Just as Luther wrestled with his faith, Ignatius of Loyola suffered spiritual agonies and emerged |||struggled||||Ignatius of Loyola||Loyola|||苦恼|| ルターが信仰と格闘したように、ロヨラのイグナチオも霊的な苦悩に苦しみ、そして立ち直った。

a charismatic leader--but unlike Luther, Ignatius and his followers remained loyal to the Catholic |charismatic||||||||||||| しかし、ルターとは異なり、イグナティウスとその信奉者たちはカトリックに忠誠を誓った。

Church.

In 1540, the Pope declared Ignatius's followers a religious order called the Society of Jesus ||||Ignatius||||||||| 1540年、ローマ教皇はイグナチオの信奉者たちを「イエズス会」と呼ばれる修道会と宣言した。

or “Jesuits.”

Many pre-existing Catholic religious orders were rededicating themselves to protect and |||||||重新致力|||| 既存のカトリック修道会の多くは、自分たちを保護し、保護するために再献身していた。

nourish their faith. nourish|| 信仰心を養う。

But Loyola's approach was especially effective given the challenges from Protestantism in |Loyola|method||||||||| しかし、ロヨラのアプローチは、プロテスタンティズムからの挑戦として、特に効果的であった。

the 1520s and thereafter. 1520年代以降

First, because he organized and ran his group like an army around a hierarchy of command; |||||||||||||level|| 第一に、彼は指揮系統を中心に軍隊のようにグループを組織し、運営していたからだ; Em primeiro lugar, porque organizou e dirigiu o seu grupo como um exército em torno de uma hierarquia de comando;

joining required several years of training and a strict code of discipline. |||||||||||discipline 入隊には数年間の訓練と厳しい規律が必要だった。

And all of this was timely given the Church's reputation for corruption, lax morals, and |||||appropriate||||reputation||||| 教会の腐敗、モラルの欠如、そして、そのような評判を考えると、これはすべて時宜を得たものであった。

in many cases, priestly incompetence, including ignorance of Latin. |||priestly|priestly incompetence|||| 多くの場合、ラテン語の無知を含む司祭の無能が原因である。

That wasn't a problem with the Jesuits. イエズス会では問題なかった。

Second, the Jesuits founded schools where humanistic education thrived alongside religious ||||||||flourished|| 第二に、イエズス会は宗教教育とともに人文主義教育が盛んな学校を設立した。

instruction.

These became a mechanism for combining the latest in intellectual practice with the revitalization |||||||||||||renewal これらは、最新の知的実践と活性化を結びつける仕組みとなった。

and reaffirmation of Catholic theology, and it was important because one of the attractions |reaffirmation||||||||||||

of Protestantism was its emphasis on broader literacy so that everyone could directly connect プロテスタンティズムが重視したのは、より広範なリテラシーである。

with scripture. お経とともに。

The Jesuits argued that Catholics could also spread education--which is why incidentally ||||||||||||by the way イエズス会は、カトリックも教育を広めることができると主張した。

there are so many Loyola Universities around the world. ロヨラ大学は世界中にたくさんある。

And that brings us to our final point: In addition to reforming Catholicism in Europe,

the Jesuits undertook globalizing the faith as a regular part of their mission. |||spreading|||||||||

Through them, Catholicism truly did become a world religion, reaching India, and Japan, 彼らを通して、カトリシズムは本当に世界宗教となり、インドや日本にも到達した、

and Africa, and the New World.

And this Jesuit activism in establishing global relationships would eventually transform Europe ||耶稣会士|||||||||

in ways that have only recently gained the attention of historians.

Let's go to the Thought Bubble.

The Jesuits interacted worldwide with an eye on both short and long-term results--they イエズス会は、短期的な結果と長期的な結果の両方を視野に入れながら、世界的な交流を行った。

wanted to convert souls, but they also wanted through schools to shape the way that young

people learned, and thus their perspective. その結果、彼らの視点が変わった。

It's important to remember that no education is morally neutral--what you learn about shapes どんな教育も道徳的に中立ではないことを忘れてはならない。

the way you look at the world.

And as they traveled, the Jesuits were in constant touch with one another comparing ||||||||constant||||| そして旅をしながら、イエズス会士たちは常に互いに連絡を取り合っていた。

best practices, and they also adapted different strategies to different parts of the world ベストプラクティスを実践し、世界各地に異なる戦略を適応させた。

as their order spread across the globe. 彼らのオーダーは世界中に広がっている。

They studied local languages before approaching people and in many cases took elements from

local beliefs and tried to persuade those they wished to convert that Catholic beliefs

were basically identical to local ones. は基本的に地元のものと同じだった。

And it was effective.

In China, there were 38,000 converts to Catholicism by 1633. ||||converts|||

By 1650, there were over a hundred thousand.

Once the Jesuits established these global contacts, they produced reports, first in イエズス会がこのような世界的なコンタクトを確立すると、彼らはまず、次のような報告書を作成した。

Latin but then translated into local European languages, and their work created a Eurocentric ラテン語がヨーロッパの現地語に翻訳され、彼らの作品はヨーロッパ中心主義を生み出した。

globalization that went way beyond religion. 宗教をはるかに超えたグローバリゼーション

For example, they became an early version of industrial spies when it came to producing 例えば、彼らは産業スパイの初期バージョンとなった。

porcelain, reporting back from China to Europe about the processes that went in to making porcelain|||||||||||||| 磁器の製造工程を中国からヨーロッパに報告した。

high-quality porcelain.

Spreading Catholicism was their mission, but the Jesuits were among those advancing commercial カトリシズムを広めることが彼らの使命であったが、イエズス会は商業を推進する人々の一人であった。

and agricultural development as well.

Thanks, Thought Bubble.

Many Catholics really took the Church's reforms to heart, intensifying their devotions, 多くのカトリック信者が教会の改革を真に受け、献身を強めた、

sometimes in ways that also helped further the religion's influence around the world. ||||||||religion||||

Among the most renowned was the Spanish mystic and nun Saint Teresa of Avila, who had a very |||renowned||||||||||Avila|||| 最も有名なのは、スペインの神秘主義者で修道女のアビラの聖テレジアである。

long birth name that I will not attempt to pronounce.

I mean, mispronouncing things is my thing, but there's no reason to go down that road. ||mispronouncing||||||||||||| 発音を間違えるのは僕の趣味だけど、そんなことをする理由はない。

At twenty, she escaped the confines of her home where she was recuperating from one of |||||boundaries|||||||recovering||| 20歳のとき、彼女は自宅から逃げ出した。

her many, and lifelong, bouts of illness to join the Carmelite order of nuns. ||||episodes||||||Carmelite order|||nuns カルメル会の修道女になるために、彼女は何度も、そして生涯にわたって闘病を続けた。

But once there, she balked at the superficiality and high society life of constant visits and ||||hesitated|||shallowness||||||constant visits|| しかし一旦そこに行くと、彼女は表面的で上流社会での生活が嫌になった。

fancy food.

She began to live out the reformed Church's rededication to faith and good works, being ||||||||rededication|||||| 彼女は、信仰と善行に対する改革派教会の再奉献を実践し始めた。

extremely strict in her practice.

She was a proponent of self-flagellation ceremonies--self-flagellation being the act of hitting one's self with |||支持者|||自我鞭打|仪式|||||||||| 彼女は自虐的な儀式の提唱者だった。

a whip in imitation of Christ's suffering at the cross. |鞭子||in imitation||Christ||||

And she became an inspiration particularly after church leaders had her write down her そして、教会の指導者たちが彼女に書き留めさせた後、彼女は特にインスピレーションを与えるようになった。

spiritual experiences in several books that have now become Counter-Reformation classics, 今では反宗教改革の古典となった数冊の著書の中で、霊的な体験を語っている、

such as Way of Perfection and The Book of Foundations. パーフェクションの道』や『基礎の書』などだ。

At the same time, she went about founding new “discalceate” (shoeless or barefoot) |||||||||shoeless|shoeless||barefoot 同時に、彼女は新しい "discalceate"(靴を履かない、あるいは裸足になること)を創設した。

Carmelite religious orders, restoring austerity and strictness to religious life. ||||简朴||rigor||| カルメル会修道会は、修道生活に厳格さと厳しさを取り戻した。

The Council of Trent had also issued a statement about art, advising that it needed to connect トレント評議会もまた、芸術に関する声明を発表し、芸術を結びつける必要があると勧告していた。

with ordinary people, including the poor.

The aim was not to produce subtle or erudite symbolism but to strike emotions, inducing その目的は、繊細で博学な象徴主義を生み出すことではなく、感情を揺さぶり、誘発することだった。

awe and evoking the power and majesty of the divine. 畏敬の念を抱き、神の力と威厳を呼び起こす。

[[TV St Peters Square]] Gian Lorenzo Bernini produced such effects, [テレビ・サンクトペテルス広場]]。ジャン・ロレンツォ・ベルニーニがこのような効果を生み出した、

for example in the piazza in front of St. Peter's Basilica. 例えば、サン・ピエトロ大聖堂前の広場で。

It features massed columns, which produce a dramatic setting for papal ritual. 法王の儀式をドラマチックに演出する円柱が特徴だ。

Protestants had smashed ornate statuary of saints and the holy family and instead created プロテスタントは、聖人や聖家族の華麗な彫像を壊し、その代わりに次のような彫像を作った。

simple, unadorned places of worship. シンプルで飾り気のない礼拝所。

But Catholics embraced majestic religious interiors, enhancing religious figures through しかし、カトリック教徒は、荘厳な宗教的インテリアを受け入れ、宗教的な人物を引き立てた。

the use of light and shade in paintings of Jesus, angels, saints, and the royalty surrounding イエス、天使、聖人、王族を取り囲む絵画における光と影の使い方

the divine-- All of which were part of a new style called これらはすべて、"神 "と呼ばれる新しいスタイルの一部だった。

baroque. バロック。

Did the world just open?

Is there a tiny little baby Jesus dressed up fancy back there? 後ろに派手な格好をした小さな小さな赤ん坊のイエスがいるのか? Há um pequeno Menino Jesus vestido de forma elegante lá atrás?

Indeed, it is the Infant of Prague, or at least a three dollar recreation of it... 確かに、プラハの幼子、あるいは少なくともそれを3ドルで再現したものなのだが......。

So you can see here, this baby Jesus is in a very fancy dress, and I...listen...if I

were a tiny baby Jesus, I would wear this fancy dress, but if you've read the gospels,

you'll know that like, this is not how tiny baby Jesus dressed.

It is, however, super baroque, emphasizing the majesty of the divine. しかし、これは超バロック的で、神の威厳を強調している。

And religious statuary like this also expressed the intensity of the Counter-Reformation and そして、このような宗教的彫像もまた、反宗教改革の激しさを表現していた。

its leading figures. その立役者である。

Bernini's statue of St. Teresa of Avila, for instance, would seem to contradict the 例えば、ベルニーニのアビラの聖テレジアの像は、そのような像と矛盾しているように思われる。

asceticism of rejecting ones shoes. 靴を拒否する禁欲主義。

Yet it expressed the ecstatic relationship with the divine and an overflow of feeling しかし、それは神との恍惚とした関係と溢れ出る感情を表現していた。

and belief. そして信念。

Likewise, baroque music expressed complexity through the use of counterpoint and emotional

and thunderous chords that filled parishioners—both illiterate and learned--with religious awe. 轟々と鳴り響く和音は、教区の人々(文盲も有識者も)を宗教的な畏敬の念で満たした。

One artist who took up the baroque style, some would say with a vengeance, was Artemisia バロック様式を取り入れた画家の一人、アルテミシアは、復讐に燃えていたとも言える。

Gentileschi. ジェンティレスキ

Trained by her father, Orazio, Gentileschi was raped by a man who'd been hired to give 父オラツィオの薫陶を受けたジェンティレスキは、娼婦を雇った男にレイプされた。

her additional instruction. 彼女の追加指導である。

She herself was tortured with thumbscrews by the court in order to ensure that she was

telling the truth when her father brought suit against the rapist. 彼女の父親がレイプ犯を訴えたとき、真実を話した。 dizer a verdade quando o pai dela moveu um processo contra o violador.

One of the few ways to get revenge...painting. 数少ない復讐の方法...絵を描くこと。

The frightening “Judith Slaying Holofernes” for instance shows the biblical heroine and 例えば、恐ろしい「ホロフェルネスを殺すユディト」は、聖書のヒロインと、「ホロフェルネスを殺すユディト」を描いている。

her maid getting revenge on the general Holofernes who threatened her people's survival. 彼女のメイドは、民族の存続を脅かす将軍ホロフェルネスに復讐する。

From the dramatic imagery to the high contrast of dark and light, this painting is exemplary ドラマチックなイメージから明暗のコントラストの高さまで、この絵は模範的である。

of counter-reformation art--it evokes the senses and an emotional connection to God's それは五感を呼び起こし、神への感情的なつながりを呼び起こす。

word, and it ain't subtle. という言葉がある。

So, between the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation, people obsessively confronted some of the つまり、宗教改革と反宗教改革の間に、人びとは執拗なまでに、ある種の "問題 "と向き合ったのである。

major issues of human existence, right? 人間存在の大きな問題だろう?

Faith, the divine, and the human conduct that should accompany religious belief, and we're 信仰、神、そして宗教的信念に付随すべき人間的行為。