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TED-Ed, A brief history of cannibalism - Bill Schutt

A brief history of cannibalism - Bill Schutt

15th century Europeans believed they had hit upon a miracle cure:

a remedy for epilepsy, hemorrhage, bruising, nausea,

and virtually any other medical ailment.

This brown powder could be mixed into drinks, made into salves

or eaten straight up.

It was known as mumia and made by grinding up mummified human flesh.

The word "cannibal" dates from the time of Christopher Columbus;

in fact, Columbus may even have coined it himself.

After coming ashore on the island of Guadaloupe,

Columbus' initial reports back to the Queen of Spain

described the indigenous people as friendly and peaceful—

though he did mention rumors of a group called the Caribs,

who made violent raids and then cooked and ate their prisoners.

In response, Queen Isabella granted permission to capture and enslave

anyone who ate human flesh.

When the island failed to produce the gold Columbus was looking for,

he began to label anyone who resisted his plundering and kidnapping as a Caribe.

Somewhere along the way, the word "Carib" became "Canibe" and then "Cannibal."

First used by colonizers to dehumanize indigenous people,

it has since been applied to anyone who eats human flesh.

So the term comes from an account that wasn't based on hard evidence,

but cannibalism does have a real and much more complex history.

It has taken diverse forms— sometimes, as with mumia,

it doesn't involved recognizable parts of the human body.

The reasons for cannibalistic practices have varied, too.

Across cultures and time periods, there's evidence of survival cannibalism,

when people living through a famine, siege or ill-fated expedition

had to either eat the bodies of the dead or starve to death themselves.

But it's also been quite common for cultures

to normalize some form of eating human flesh under ordinary circumstances.

Because of false accounts like Columbus's,

it's difficult to say exactly how common cultural cannibalism has been—

but there are still some examples of accepted cannibalistic practices

from within the cultures practicing them.

Take the medicinal cannibalism in Europe during Columbus's time.

Starting in the 15th century, the demand for mumia increased.

At first, stolen mummies from Egypt supplied the mumia craze,

but soon the demand was too great to be sustained on Egyptian mummies alone,

and opportunists stole bodies from European cemeteries to turn into mumia.

Use of mumia continued for hundreds of years.

It was listed in the Merck index, a popular medical encyclopedia,

into the 20th century.

And ground up mummies were far from the only remedy made from human flesh

that was common throughout Europe.

Blood, in either liquid or powdered form, was used to treat epilepsy,

while human liver, gall stones, oil distilled from human brains,

and pulverized hearts were popular medical concoctions.

In China,

the written record of socially accepted cannibalism goes back almost 2,000 years.

One particularly common form of cannibalism

appears to have been filial cannibalism,

where adult sons and daughters would offer a piece of their own flesh

to their parents.

This was typically offered as a last-ditch attempt to cure a sick parent,

and wasn't fatal to their offspring—

it usually involved flesh from the thigh or, less often, a finger.

Cannibalistic funerary rites are another form of culturally sanctioned cannibalism.

Perhaps the best-known example came from the Fore people of New Guinea.

Through the mid-20th century, members of the community would,

if possible, make their funerary preferences known in advance,

sometimes requesting that family members gather to consume the body after death.

Tragically, though these rituals honored the deceased,

they also spread a deadly disease known as kuru through the community.

Between the fictionalized stories, verifiable practices,

and big gaps that still exist in our knowledge,

there's no one history of cannibalism.

But we do know that people have been eating each other,

volunteering themselves to be eaten,

and accusing others of eating people for millennia.

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A brief history of cannibalism - Bill Schutt ||||||Schutt |Kurze|||Kannibalismus||Bill Schutt ||||cannibalismo|| ||||canibalismo||Schutt ||||人肉食|| Eine kurze Geschichte des Kannibalismus - Bill Schutt Μια σύντομη ιστορία του κανιβαλισμού - Bill Schutt A brief history of cannibalism - Bill Schutt Breve historia del canibalismo - Bill Schutt Une brève histoire du cannibalisme - Bill Schutt Breve storia del cannibalismo - Bill Schutt カニバリズムの簡単な歴史 - ビル・シュット 식인 풍습의 간략한 역사 - 빌 슈트 Trumpa kanibalizmo istorija - Bill Schutt Een korte geschiedenis van kannibalisme - Bill Schutt Krótka historia kanibalizmu - Bill Schutt Uma breve história do canibalismo - Bill Schutt Краткая история каннибализма - Билл Шутт Yamyamlığın kısa tarihi - Bill Schutt Коротка історія канібалізму - Білл Шутт 食人简史 - Bill Schutt 食人簡史——比爾舒特

15th century Europeans believed they had hit upon a miracle cure: ||Europäer|glaubten||hatten|gestoßen|auf||Wundermittel|Wundermittel ||||||발견했다|||| |||||||||cudownym| |||||||||milagre|cura 15世紀のヨーロッパ人は、奇跡の治療法を発見したと信じていた: Os europeus do século 15 acreditavam ter encontrado uma cura milagrosa: Европейцы XV века верили, что им удалось найти чудодейственное лекарство: Європейці 15 століття вірили, що знайшли чудодійний засіб: 15 世纪的欧洲人相信他们找到了一种神奇的疗法:

a remedy for epilepsy, hemorrhage, bruising, nausea, |um remédio para epilepsia, hemorragia, contusões, náuseas||epilepsia|hemorragia|hematoma|náusea |Heilmittel||Epilepsie|Blutung|Prellungen|Übelkeit |||간질|출혈||메스꺼움 |rimedio||epilessia|emorragia|contusioni| |||||moretones|nausea |治療法||てんかん|出血|打撲|吐き気 ||||krwotok|siniaki|nudności a remedy for epilepsy, hemorrhage, bruising, nausea, てんかん、出血、打撲、吐き気の治療薬、

and virtually any other medical ailment. |||||e praticamente qualquer outra doença. |und praktisch jede||||Krankheit |||||질병 |||||malattia |ほぼすべての|||医療の|病気 |prácticamente|||| その他、事実上どんな病気でも。

This brown powder could be mixed into drinks, made into salves ||||||||||healing ointments ||Pulver|||gemischt werden|||||Salben herstellen ||||||||||연고 |||||||||in|unguenti ||||||||||ungüentos ||||||||||軟膏 |||||||napoje|||maści, balsamy Este polvo marrón podía mezclarse en bebidas, hacerse ungüentos この茶色の粉末は、飲み物に混ぜたり、軟膏にしたりすることができる。 这种棕色粉末可以混合到饮料中,制成药膏

or eaten straight up. |oder direkt gegessen|| またはそのまま食べる。 ou comido direto.

It was known as mumia and made by grinding up mummified human flesh. ||||mumia|||||||| ||||Mumienpulver||||zermahlen||mumifiziert||menschliches Fleisch ||||미라||||||미라화된||인간 살점 ||||mumia||||macinare||mummificata||carne ||知られていた||ミイラ||||粉砕||ミイラ化した|人間|肉 ||||mumia|||||||| ミュミアと呼ばれ、ミイラ化した人肉を粉砕して作られた。 它被称为“mumia”,是通过磨碎木乃伊人肉制成的。

The word "cannibal" dates from the time of Christopher Columbus; ||Kannibale|stammt aus|||||Christoph Kolumbus|Christoph Kolumbus |||유래|||||| ||人食い人種|日付|||||| ||caníbal||||||| |||||||||Krzysztof Kolumb カニバル」という言葉は、クリストファー・コロンブスの時代から使われている; “食人者”这个词可以追溯到克里斯托弗·哥伦布时代。

in fact, Columbus may even have coined it himself. ||||||geprägt|| ||||||발명했을지도 모른다|| ||||||作った|| ||||||ukłuł|| ||||||coniato|| 実際、コロンブスが自分で作った言葉かもしれない。 事实上,这个词甚至可能是哥伦布自己创造的。

After coming ashore on the island of Guadaloupe, ||an Land|||Insel||Guadeloupe ||섬에 도착하여||||| ||a terra|||||Guadalupa ||na brzeg||||| ||上陸して|||||グアドループ ||a tierra|||||Guadaloupe グアダループ島に上陸した後、 Depois de desembarcar na ilha de Guadalupe,

Columbus' initial reports back to the Queen of Spain ||Berichte||||Königin von Spanien|| |iniziali||||||| コロンブスのスペイン女王への最初の報告

described the indigenous people as friendly and peaceful— beschrieb||einheimisch||||| ||토착민||||| ||先住民||||| ||rdzenne|||przyjazny|| 先住民族は友好的で平和的だ

though he did mention rumors of a group called the Caribs, obwohl|||nannte|Gerüchte||||||Kariben |||言及|噂||||||カリブ族 ||||||||||caribes ||||||||||Caribi しかし、カリブ族というグループの噂には触れていた、 hoewel hij geruchten noemde over een groep genaamd de Caribs, 尽管他确实提到了一个名为加勒比人的组织的谣言,

who made violent raids and then cooked and ate their prisoners. ||gewalttätig|Überfälle|||gekocht und gegessen||||Gefangene |||습격||||||| |||襲撃|||||||囚人たち |||incursiones|||||||prisioneros |||incursioni||||||| 暴力的な襲撃を行い、捕虜を調理して食べた。 他们发动猛烈袭击,然后煮熟并吃掉他们的囚犯。

In response, Queen Isabella granted permission to capture and enslave |Antwort||Königin Isabella|gewährte|Erlaubnis erteilen||gefangen nehmen||versklaven |||||||||노예로 만들다 ||||与えた|||||奴隷にする |||Isabel||||||esclavizar ||||concesse|||||ridurre in schiavitù これに対し、イザベラ女王は捕獲と奴隷化を許可した。

anyone who ate human flesh. 人肉を食べた者なら誰でも。

When the island failed to produce the gold Columbus was looking for, |||nicht gelang||||Gold|||| この島でコロンブスが探していた金は産出されなかった、 当该岛未能产出哥伦布所寻找的黄金时,

he began to label anyone who resisted his plundering and kidnapping as a Caribe. |begann||kennzeichnen|||widerstand||Plünderungen||Entführung|||Karibe ||||||||약탈||||| ||||||||saccheggio||rapimento|||Caribe ||||||||rabunek||||| |||ラベル|||抵抗した||略奪||誘拐|||カリブ |||||||||||||Caribe 彼は略奪や誘拐に抵抗する者にカリブのレッテルを貼り始めた。 ele começou a rotular qualquer um que resistisse a seus saques e sequestros como Caribe.

Somewhere along the way, the word "Carib" became "Canibe" and then "Cannibal." Irgendwo||||||Karibe||Canibe||| 어딘가에|어느 지점에서|||||||||| ||||||カリブ||カニバル||| ||||||||Canibe||| ||||||Carib||Canibe||| いつしか "Carib "は "Canibe "となり、やがて "Cannibal "となった。 一路走来,“Carib”这个词变成了“Canibe”,然后变成了“Cannibal”。

First used by colonizers to dehumanize indigenous people, |||Kolonisatoren||entmenschlichen|| |||||비인간화하다|| |||colonizzatori||disumanizzare|| |||||deshumanizar|| |||植民者||非人間化する|先住民| |||||dehumanizować|| 最初は植民地支配者が先住民の人間性を奪うために使用した、 Voor het eerst gebruikt door kolonisten om inheemse mensen te ontmenselijken,

it has since been applied to anyone who eats human flesh. ||||angewendet||||isst|| ||||||||mangia|| それ以来、人肉を食べる者すべてに適用されるようになった。 Desde então, tem sido aplicado a qualquer pessoa que coma carne humana. 从那时起,它就被应用于所有吃人肉的人。

So the term comes from an account that wasn't based on hard evidence, ||||||Bericht||||||Beweisen ||||||설명|||||| ||||||報告|||||| ||||||relacji|||||| つまり、この言葉は確かな証拠に基づかない説明から来ているのだ、 所以这个术语来自于一个没有确凿证据的解释,

but cannibalism does have a real and much more complex history. |人食い||||||||| しかし、カニバリズムにはもっと複雑な歴史がある。 但食人行为确实有着真实且更为复杂的历史。

It has taken diverse forms— sometimes, as with mumia, |||vielfältige||||| |||多様な||||| |||różnorodne|||||mumia ミュミアのように多様な形をとることもある、 它有多种形式——有时,就像穆米亚那样,

it doesn't involved recognizable parts of the human body. |||erkennbar||||| それは、人体の認識できる部分を含んでいない。 它不涉及人体的可识别部分。

The reasons for cannibalistic practices have varied, too. |Gründe||kannibalistische Praktiken|Praktiken||variiert| ||の|人食いの|習慣||様々であった| |||canibalísticas|||| |||cannibalistiche|||| カニバリズムの理由もさまざまだ。 同类相食的原因也各不相同。

Across cultures and time periods, there's evidence of survival cannibalism, Über|Kulturen|||Zeiträume||Hinweise||Überleben| ||||||||生存| 文化や時代を超えて、サバイバル・カニバリズムの証拠がある、 在不同的文化和不同的时期,都有证据表明食人行为的存在,

when people living through a famine, siege or ill-fated expedition |||||Hungersnot|Belagerung|||vom Schicksal bestimmt|Expedition |||||기근|포위||불행한|불운한|원정 |||||||||sventurata|spedizione |||||głód|oblężenie|||niefortunna| |||||飢饉|包囲戦|||運命づけられた|探検隊 |||||hambruna||||| cuando la gente vive una hambruna, un asedio o una expedición nefasta 飢饉、包囲戦、不運な遠征を生き延びた人々が 当人们经历饥荒、围困或不幸的远征时

had to either eat the bodies of the dead or starve to death themselves. |||||Leichen|||||verhungern||verhungern| ||||||||||餓死する||| ||||||||||morire||| tenían que comer los cuerpos de los muertos o morir de hambre ellos mismos. 死者の遺体を食べるか、自ら餓死するしかなかった。 要么吃死者的尸体,要么自己饿死。

But it's also been quite common for cultures しかし、文化的にはごく一般的なことでもある。

to normalize some form of eating human flesh under ordinary circumstances. |normalisieren||Form||||||gewöhnliche|Umstände |正当化する||||||||普通の|状況 |normalizar||||||carne||| |normalizzare||||||||| 通常の状況下で人肉を食べることを何らかの形で常態化させるためだ。 нормализовать некоторую форму поедания человеческой плоти при обычных обстоятельствах. 使正常情况下吃人肉的某种形式正常化。

Because of false accounts like Columbus's, ||falsche|falsche Berichte||Columbus' ||虚偽の|アカウント||コロンブスの |||||Colón コロンブスのような嘘の証言のせいだ、 由于像哥伦布这样的虚假记载,

it's difficult to say exactly how common cultural cannibalism has been— |||||||kulturellen||| 文化的なカニバリズムがどれほど一般的であったかを正確に語るのは難しい。 很难准确地说文化同类相食现象有多普遍——

but there are still some examples of accepted cannibalistic practices |||noch||||akzeptierten||Praktiken しかし、カニバリズムが認められている例もいくつかある。

from within the cultures practicing them. |innerhalb|||praktizieren| |内で|||実践している| それを実践している文化の中から。 来自实践它们的文化内部。

Take the medicinal cannibalism in Europe during Columbus's time. ||medizinisch|||||| ||medicinale|||||| ||leczniczy|||||| コロンブスの時代のヨーロッパにおける薬用カニバリズムを例に取ろう。

Starting in the 15th century, the demand for mumia increased. ||||||Nachfrage|||stieg ||||||수요||| 15世紀に入ると、ミュミアの需要が高まった。 Починаючи з 15 століття, попит на муміє зріс.

At first, stolen mummies from Egypt supplied the mumia craze, ||gestohlene|Mumien||Ägypten|geliefert|||Wahn |||||||||열풍 |||ミイラ||||||熱狂 |||||||||szał na mumie |||mummie||||||follia 当初、エジプトから盗まれたミイラがミュミア・ブームをもたらした、

but soon the demand was too great to be sustained on Egyptian mummies alone, However||||||||||||| |||||||||aufrechterhalten werden||ägyptische Mumien|| |||||||||지속되다|||| |||||||||||egiziane|| ||||||||||||ミイラ| ||||||||||||mumie egipskie| но вскоре спрос стал слишком велик, чтобы удовлетворить его только египетскими мумиями.

and opportunists stole bodies from European cemeteries to turn into mumia. |Opportunisten|stahlen|||europäischen|Friedhöfen|||| |기회주의자들||||||||| |機会主義者|||||墓地|||| ||||||cementerios|||| |opportunisti|||||||||

Use of mumia continued for hundreds of years. |||fortgesetzt||||

It was listed in the Merck index, a popular medical encyclopedia, |||||Merck||||| ||aufgeführt|||Merck-Index|Index||||Enzyklopädie ||||||||||백과사전 |||||Merck||||| |||||indeksie Merck||||| |||||メルク|||||百科事典 |||||Merck|||||enciclopedia

into the 20th century.

And ground up mummies were far from the only remedy made from human flesh |zermahlene||||weit||||Heilmittel||||Fleisch |가루로 만든|||이었다||||||||| |肉||ミイラ||||||治療法|||| そして、ミイラを粉砕したものだけが、人肉から作られた治療薬ではなかった。 磨碎的木乃伊远不是用人肉制成的唯一药物

that was common throughout Europe. ヨーロッパ全土に共通するものだった。

Blood, in either liquid or powdered form, was used to treat epilepsy, Blut|||flüssig||pulverisierter|||||| |||||in polvere|||||| |||||||||||てんかん てんかんの治療には、液体または粉末状の血液が使われた、 血液,无论是液体还是粉末形式,都被用来治疗癫痫症,

while human liver, gall stones, oil distilled from human brains, ||||||extracted||| ||menschliche Leber|Gallensteine|Gallensteine|Öl|destilliert||| |||담석||기름|||| |||bile|||distillato||| |||żółć|||destylowany||| |||胆汁|||蒸留された||| |||bilis|||destilado||| 一方、人間の肝臓、胆石、人間の脳から蒸留した油、 而人的肝脏、胆结石、从人脑中蒸馏出来的油,

and pulverized hearts were popular medical concoctions. |zerstoßene|Herzen|||medizinische|Mischungen |분쇄된|||||조합물 |polverizzati|||||confezioni |zmielone|||||mikstury medyczne |粉砕された|||||調合薬 ||||||mezclas と心臓の粉砕は、医療用調合薬として人気があった。

In China,

the written record of socially accepted cannibalism goes back almost 2,000 years. ||Schriftlicher Nachweis||sozial akzeptiert|||||fast| 社会的に受け入れられているカニバリズムの文書による記録は、およそ2000年前にさかのぼる。

One particularly common form of cannibalism |besonders||Form|| 特に一般的なカニバリズムのひとつ

appears to have been filial cannibalism, scheint||||"kindlich"| ||||자식의| ||||filiale| ||||synowski| ||||親子の| ||||filial| 親孝行のためのカニバリズムだったようだ、 看来是孝顺的同类相食,

where adult sons and daughters would offer a piece of their own flesh ||Söhne||Töchter||anbieten|||||| 成人した息子や娘が、自分の肉片を捧げる。 成年的儿子和女儿会献上自己的一块肉

to their parents. 両親のために。

This was typically offered as a last-ditch attempt to cure a sick parent, |||angeboten||||letzter Versuch|||||kranken|kranken Elternteil ||||||마지막 노력||||||| |||提供された|||最後の手段|最後の手段|試み||||| |||||||ostateczna próba|||||| |||||||estremo|||||| これは通常、病気の親を治すための最後の手段として提供されるものだった、 Isso era normalmente oferecido como uma última tentativa de curar um pai doente, 这通常是作为治愈生病父母的最后一搏,

and wasn't fatal to their offspring— ||tödlich|||Nachkommen ||치명적이지 않았다|||자손 ||致命的|||子孫 ||fatale|||progenie しかし、その子孫には致命的なダメージはなかった......。 e não foi fatal para os seus descendentes. 并且对他们的后代来说并不是致命的——

it usually involved flesh from the thigh or, less often, a finger. |normalerweise|||||Oberschenkel||seltener|||Finger ||||||허벅지||||| ||||||太もも||||| ||||||coscia|||||dito 通常は太ももの肉か、指を使うことが多い。 它通常涉及大腿的肉,或者较少见的是手指的肉。

Cannibalistic funerary rites are another form of culturally sanctioned cannibalism. ||||||||approved| |Bestattungs-|Rituale|||||kulturell anerkannt|kulturell sanktioniert| |장례식의|의식||||||인정된| |funerari|||||||sancito| ||||||||zatwierdzony kulturowo| 人食い|葬儀の|儀式|||||文化的に|文化的に承認された| ||ritos||||||sancionada| カニバリズム的な葬儀は、文化的に公認されたカニバリズムのもうひとつの形態である。

Perhaps the best-known example came from the Fore people of New Guinea. ||||||||Fore|||| vielleicht||||||||Fore-Volk||||Neuguinea ||||||||Fore|||| ||||||||lud Fore|||| ||||||||フォレ|||新しい|ニュージーランド ||||||||Fore|||| おそらく最もよく知られている例は、ニューギニアのフォア族のものだろう。 也许最著名的例子来自新几内亚的福尔人。

Through the mid-20th century, members of the community would, ||Mitte des |||Mitglieder der Gemeinschaft|||| 20世紀半ばまで、地域の人々はこうしていた、

if possible, make their funerary preferences known in advance, ||||Bestattungs-||||im Voraus ||||葬儀の|葬儀の希望|知られている|| 可能であれば、事前に葬儀の希望を伝えておく、 если возможно, заранее сообщите об их похоронных предпочтениях, 如果可能的话,提前告知他们的丧葬偏好,

sometimes requesting that family members gather to consume the body after death. |darum bitten||||sich versammeln||verzehren|||| |||||||소비하다|||| |richiedere|||||||||| |solicitando|||||||||| |||||||消費する|||| 死後、遺族が集まって遺体を食べるよう求めることもある。 有时要求家人在死后聚集在一起吃掉尸体。

Tragically, though these rituals honored the deceased, |||Rituale|ehrten||Verstorbenen 비극적으로||||||고인 悲しいことに|しかし|これらの|儀式|尊ばれた||故人 ||||||zmarłych ||||||deceduto 悲劇的なことに、これらの儀式は故人を讃えるものであった、 К сожалению, хотя эти ритуалы чтили умерших, 可悲的是,尽管这些仪式是为了纪念死者,

they also spread a deadly disease known as kuru through the community. ||||||||kuru||| ||verbreiten||tödliche||||Kuru||| ||||||||kuru||| ||||||||kuru||| ||||||||クル||| ||||||||kuru||| 彼らはまた、クルと呼ばれる致命的な病気を地域社会に蔓延させた。 ze verspreidden ook een dodelijke ziekte die bekend staat als kuru door de gemeenschap. 他们还在社区传播一种称为库鲁病的致命疾病。

Between the fictionalized stories, verifiable practices, ||fiktionalisierten||nachprüfbare| ||||검증 가능한| ||fittizie||verificabili| ||fikcjonalizowanych||weryfikowalne| ||フィクション化された||検証可能な|実践 ||||verificables| 虚構の物語の間に、検証可能な実践がある、 在虚构的故事和可验证的实践之间,

and big gaps that still exist in our knowledge, ||||||||Wissen ||luki|||||| そして私たちの知識にはまだ大きなギャップがある、 и большие пробелы, которые все еще существуют в наших знаниях, 我们的知识仍然存在巨大空白,

there's no one history of cannibalism. カニバリズムの歴史は一つではない。 没有任何人吃人的历史。

But we do know that people have been eating each other, しかし、私たちが知っているのは、人々が互いに食べ合ってきたということだ、 Но мы знаем, что люди ели друг друга,

volunteering themselves to be eaten, sich freiwillig melden|||| 自ら進んで|||| volontariarsi|||| 食べられるために自ら志願したのだ、 自愿被吃掉,

and accusing others of eating people for millennia. |beschuldigen||||||Jahrtausende |비난해온||||||천년 동안 |非難する||の|||| そして何千年もの間、他人が人を食べていると非難してきた。 и обвиняя других в поедании людей на протяжении тысячелетий. 并指责别人吃人已有数千年。