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The Story of the Middle Ages, 18. End of the Middle Ages

18. End of the Middle Ages

Writers of histories are not agreed as to just when the Middle Ages came to an end; but all unite in saying that the change had come by about the year 1500.

If we ask what this change was, the question is easy to answer, though perhaps hard to understand. When men had come to think different thoughts, and live under different institutions, in the Church and in the State, from those we have been describing, then the end of the Middle Ages had come. Feudalism ceased to be a sufficient tie to bind men together in society, and national states arose. Chivalry ceased to be the noble institution its founders had hoped to make of it and became a picturesque mimicry of high sentiment, without real hold on the life of the time. Men came to rely less upon their guilds and communes, their orders and classes, and act more for themselves as individuals. Ignorance, too, became less dense; and as men learned more of the world, and of themselves, superstition became less universal and degrading.

It was such changes as these that mark the close of the Middle Ages and the beginning of a new time. Many of the events of which we have been reading helped to bring on these changes, and put an end to this period of history. The Crusades did a great deal, by bringing the different peoples of Europe into contact with one another, and broadening their minds; while at the same time they helped to develop the commerce which kept the nations in touch. The long struggle between the Papacy and the Empire, as we have seen, broke down the power of each, and so prepared the way for the rise of new institutions. And the Hundred Years' War between France and England, by making these nations feel that they were French and English, helped to complete the break-up of the old system, and bring in a time when all Europe was divided into a number of national states, each with its own interests and government, and owing obedience to no emperor or other superior. The capture of Constantinople by the Turks and the fall of the Eastern Empire was another event which helped bring the Middle Ages to a close. After the Crusades had come to an end, a new branch of Turks, called the Ottomans, had risen to power. In the course of a century and a half, they made themselves masters of all Asia Minor and Palestine, and of a good part of Southeastern Europe as well. At Adrianople, where the Goths had won their first great victory, they fixed their capital; and their "horse-tail" standards were thence borne far up the valley of the Danube, into Hungary and Austria. But for many years the walls of Constantinople proved too much for them; and there the Eastern Empire prolonged its feeble existence. When the Hundred Years' War was just coming to an end, a new sultan came to the throne whose entire energies were devoted to the capture of that city and the making it his capital. In 1453 the attack began. Great cannons,—the largest the world had ever seen,—now thundered away, along with catapults, battering-rams, and other engines which the Middle Ages used. After fifty-three days, the city was taken. Then the Christian churches became Mohammedan mosques; and the standard of the Sultans floated where for a thousand years had hung the banner of the Eastern Emperors. In this way was established the Ottoman Empire, the continued existence of which causes some of the hardest problems which the Christian nations have to face to-day.

All these events which we have been recounting helped to bring the Middle Ages to a close; but other things helped even more than these. One was what we call the Revival of Learning; another was certain great inventions which the later Middle Ages produced; and a third was the discovery of new lands and new peoples across the seas.

Although the monks had done much for learning during the Middle Ages, nevertheless a great deal of the knowledge and literature of the olden time had disappeared. Many of the most famous works of the old Greek and Latin authors had been lost sight of altogether. Others, also, which the monks had, they did not understand; and still others they almost feared to read because they were full of the stories of the old gods, whom the Middle Ages regarded as evil spirits. The Latin, too, which the monks spoke and wrote was very incorrect and corrupt; and practically no one outside of the Eastern Empire understood Greek at all.

About the beginning of the fourteenth century, however, men began to take a new interest in the old literature. They began to write more correct Latin. They searched for forgotten manuscripts which might contain some of the lost works. They corrected and edited the manuscripts they had, and began to make dictionaries and grammars to aid them in understanding them. Soon some began even to learn Greek, and collect Greek manuscripts as well as Latin ones. Above all, scholars tried to put themselves back in the place of the old Greeks and Romans, and look at the world through their eyes, and not through the eyes of the medieval monks. The result was that many things began to seem different to them. They no longer feared this world as the monks had done. They took delight in its beauty, and no longer thought that everything which was pleasant was therefore sinful. And because they believed that man's life as a human being was good in itself, the new scholars were called "humanists," and their studies and ways of thinking "humanism. " This change in the way of thinking came only gradually, and it was a hundred years before humanism began to spread from Italy, where it first arose, to the countries north of the Alps. But then the Germans contributed something which helped to spread humanism more rapidly. This was the invention of printing.

The making of books, by forming each letter in each copy, separately with the pen, was so slow that men had long hunted for some means of lessening the labor. They found that by engraving the page upon a block of wood, and printing from this, they could make a hundred copies almost as easily as one, so in the fifteenth century "block books," as they were called, began to be made. But the trouble with these was that every page had to be engraved separately, and this proved such a task that only books of a very few pages were made in this way.

Then it occurred to John Gutenberg, of Strasburg, that if he made the letters separate, he could use the same ones over and over again to form new pages; and if instead of cutting the letters themselves, he made moulds to produce them, then he could cast his type in metal (which would be better than wood anyway), and from the one mould he could make as many of each letter as was necessary.

In this way printing from movable metal types was invented by Gutenberg, about the year 1450. It seems like a very small thing when we tell about it, but it was one of the most important inventions that the world has ever seen. The first book that was printed was the Bible. Soon presses and printing offices were established all over Western Europe, printing Bibles and other books, and selling them so cheaply that almost every one could now afford to buy. The invention of printing thus served to spread humanism and the knowledge of the Bible throughout Europe, and these two together brought on the Reformation and helped put an end entirely to the Middle Ages.

The introduction of gunpowder was also, in the end, of very great importance. Nobody knows just when or by whom gunpowder was invented; but it was used to make rockets and fireworks in India and China long before it was known in Europe. In the fourteenth century the Moors of Spain introduced the use of cannon into Europe; and by the date of the battle of Crecy (1346) cannon were to be found in most of the western countries. These, however, were usually small, and were often composed merely of iron staves roughly hooped together, or even of wood or of leather; and the powder used was weak and without sufficient force to throw the ball any great distance. It was not gunpowder, as is sometimes said, that first overthrew the armored knight of the Middle Ages; it was the archers, and the foot-soldiers armed with long pikes for thrusting, and with halberds hooked at the end by means of which the knight might be pulled from his horse. As the cannon were improved, however, they became of great service in breaking down the walls of feudal castles, and of hostile cities; and so, in the end, they helped greatly to change the mode of making war. But it was not until the Middle Ages had quite come to an end that gunpowder had become so useful in small hand guns that the old long-bows and crossbows completely disappeared.

Two other inventions that came into use in the Middle Ages were also of great importance in bringing in the new time. These were the compass, or magnetic needle, and the "cross-staff" used by sailors for finding latitude. Like gunpowder, the compass came from Asia, where it was used by the Chinese long before the birth of Christ. It was introduced into Europe as a guide to sailors about the beginning of the fourteenth century. It enabled them to steer steadily in whatever direction they wished, even when far from land; but it could not tell them where they were at any given time. The cross-staff did this in part, for it could tell them their latitude by measuring the height of the north star above the horizon. The "astrolabe" was another instrument which was used for the same purpose. These were very ancient instruments, but they did not begin to be used by sailors until some time in the fifteenth century. Even then the sailor had to trust to guess-work for his longitude, for the watches and chronometers by which ship captains now measure longitude were not yet invented; and sailing maps were only beginning to be made.

Yes, in spite of these disadvantages, and in spite of the smallness of the vessels, and the terrors of unknown seas, great progress was made in the discovery of new lands before the close of our period. The commerce of the Italian cities made their citizens skillful sailors, voyaging up and down the Mediterranean and even beyond the straits of Gibraltar. The Normans and certain of the Spanish peoples, early sailed boldly into the northern and western seas. But it was the little state of Portugal that led the way in the discovery of new worlds. A prince of that state gave so much attention to discovery in the first half of the fifteenth century, that he was called Prince Henry "the Navigator." Under his wise direction Portuguese seamen began working their way south along the coast of Africa. In this way the Madeira and Canary Islands, the Azores, and Cape Verde were discovered one after another before 1450; and after Prince Henry's death, a Portuguese captain succeeded in 1486 in reaching the southernmost point of Africa, to which the Portuguese King gave the name "Cape of Good Hope." Twelve years later, in 1498, Vasco da Gama realized this hope by reaching the East Indies, and so opened up communication by sea with India. Six years before, as we all know, Columbus while trying to reach the same region by sailing westward, discovered the new world of America,—though he died thinking that he had reached Asia and the East Indies.

So we come to a time when Europe had emerged from the darkness of the Middle Ages, and was preparing, first, to make a reformation in religion, and then to go forth and found new Europes across the seas. But the details of these events belong to the story of Modern Times, and not to the Middle Ages. To complete our story we need only tell what was the condition of each of the principal states of Europe at this time, and point out the part it was to play in the new period.

Germany was the country which was to take the lead in bringing about the Reformation in religion. Its people were more serious-minded than the peoples south of the Alps, and felt more keenly the evils in the Church; above all, it was there that the great reformer, Martin Luther, was born. But Germany was split up into a great many little states, each with its own prince or king, and each practically independent of the Emperor. So there was no national strength in Germany; and when the movement began to establish colonies and take possession of the New World, Germany took no part.

Italy also was too much split up among rival cities and warring principalities to take any part in colonization; and the Eastern nations, such as Russia and Poland, were not used to the sea. Sweden for a while became very powerful in the seventeenth century, owing to the ability of its great King, Gustavus Adolphus, and it established colonies on the river Delaware. The Dutch also for a time became a great seafaring people, and established colonies on the banks of the Hudson. Both these countries, however, soon lost their strength, and their colonies, for the most part, passed into the hands of larger and stronger nations.

It was the nations of Western Europe,—England, France, and Spain,—that were to take the lead in building up new Europes across the water. England at the close of the Middle Ages was just coming out of the long War of the Roses which was mentioned in the last chapter. That war had brought Henry VII., the grandfather of the great Queen Elizabeth, to the throne; and under him England was strong, united and prosperous. Thus when the Venetian, John Cabot, asked King Henry for ships to sail westward to the lands newly found by Columbus, his request was granted. In that way the beginning was made of a claim which, after many years, gave the English the possession of all the eastern part of North America.

France also was strong, united, and prosperous at the close of the Middle Ages. Through several centuries the kings had been busy breaking down the influence of the great nobles, and gathering the power into their own hands. So France was ready to take part in the exploration and settlement of the New World; and the result was that the French got Canada and Louisiana, and for a while it seemed as though the whole of the great Mississippi basin was about to pass into their hands also.

But it was Spain that was to take the chief part in the work of making known the New World to the Old, and in establishing there the first colonies. From the days when the Moors came into Spain in 711, the Spanish Christians had been occupied for nearly eight hundred years in defending themselves in the mountains against the Mohammedans and in winning back, bit by bit, the land which the Goths had lost. Little by little, new states had there arisen—Castile, Leon, Aragon, and Portugal. Next these states began to unite—Leon with Castile, and then (by the marriage of Isabella to Ferdinand) Castile with Aragon. In the year 1492, the last of the Moors were overcome, and the whole peninsula, except Portugal alone, was united under one king and queen. So Spain, too, was made strong, united, and prosperous; and was prepared, with the confidence of victory upon it, to send forth Columbus, Vespucius, De Soto, Cortez, and Magellan, to lay the foundations of the first great colonial empire.

All this was made possible by the Middle Ages. It was the blending of the old Germans with the peoples of the Roman Empire, that made the Spaniards, the French, and, to a certain extent, the English people. It was the events of the Middle Ages that shaped their development, and formed the strong national monarchies which alone could colonize the New World. And it was the institutions and ideas which had been shaped and formed and re-shaped and re-formed in the Middle Ages, that the colonists brought with them from across the sea. So, in a way, the story of the Middle Ages is a part of our own history. The New World influenced the Old World a very great deal; but it was itself influenced yet more largely by the older one.

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18. End of the Middle Ages 18. نهاية العصور الوسطى 18. Ende des Mittelalters 18. Fin de la Edad Media 18. Fin du Moyen-Âge 18. Fine del Medioevo 18.中世の終わり 18. Fim da Idade Média 18. Конец Средневековья 18. Orta Çağ'ın Sonu 18. Кінець середньовіччя 18.中世纪的结束 18.中世纪的结束

Writers of histories are not agreed as to just when the Middle Ages came to an end; but all unite in saying that the change had come by about the year 1500. ||||||||恰好||||||||||所有人||||||||到来|||| لم يتفق كتاب التاريخ على متى انتهت العصور الوسطى بالضبط؛ ولكن الجميع يتحدون في القول بأن التغيير قد حدث حوالي عام 1500.

If we ask what this change was, the question is easy to answer, though perhaps hard to understand. إذا سألنا ما هو هذا التغيير، فمن السهل الإجابة على هذا السؤال، على الرغم من صعوبة فهمه. When men had come to think different thoughts, and live under different institutions, in the Church and in the State, from those we have been describing, then the end of the Middle Ages had come. |||||||||||||||||||||那些||||||||||||| |||||||||||||||||||||||||describing||||||||| عندما أصبح الناس يفكرون بأفكار مختلفة، ويعيشون في ظل مؤسسات مختلفة، في الكنيسة وفي الدولة، عن تلك التي وصفناها، جاءت نهاية العصور الوسطى. Feudalism ceased to be a sufficient tie to bind men together in society, and national states arose. |||||adequate|connection|||||||||| |припинився||||||||||||||| ولم يعد الإقطاع رابطا كافيا لربط الناس ببعضهم البعض في المجتمع، ونشأت الدول القومية. Chivalry ceased to be the noble institution its founders had hoped to make of it and became a picturesque mimicry of high sentiment, without real hold on the life of the time. ||||||||||||使成为|||||||虚假的模仿|||||||||||| Noble institution||||||organization||creators|||||||||||imitation|||emotion|||grasp, influence|||||| |||||||||||||||||||模倣|||||||||||| توقفت الفروسية عن كونها المؤسسة النبيلة التي كان مؤسسوها يأملون في جعلها منها، وأصبحت تقليدًا رائعًا للمشاعر العالية، دون سيطرة حقيقية على الحياة في ذلك الوقت. 騎士道は、その創設者がそれを作ることを望んでいた高貴な機関ではなくなり、当時の生活を実際に保持することなく、高い感情の絵のような模倣になりました。 Men came to rely less upon their guilds and communes, their orders and classes, and act more for themselves as individuals. |||depend||||associations|||||||||||||people |||||||цехи||||||||||||| أصبح الرجال يعتمدون بشكل أقل على نقاباتهم وبلدياتهم، وأوامرهم وطبقاتهم، ويتصرفون أكثر لأنفسهم كأفراد. Ignorance, too, became less dense; and as men learned more of the world, and of themselves, superstition became less universal and degrading. ||变得|||||||||||||||||||贬低的 lack of knowledge||||thick||||||||||||irrational belief|||widespread||demeaning ||||||||||||||||суеверність|||||принизливою كما أصبح الجهل أقل كثافة. وكلما تعلم الناس المزيد عن العالم وعن أنفسهم، أصبحت الخرافات أقل عالمية ومهينة.

It was such changes as these that mark the close of the Middle Ages and the beginning of a new time. |||||||标志||||||||||||| لقد كانت مثل هذه التغييرات بمثابة علامة على نهاية العصور الوسطى وبداية عصر جديد. Many of the events of which we have been reading helped to bring on these changes, and put an end to this period of history. |||||||||||||导致||||||||||| والعديد من الأحداث التي قرأنا عنها ساعدت في إحداث هذه التغييرات، ووضع حد لهذه الفترة من التاريخ. The Crusades did a great deal, by bringing the different peoples of Europe into contact with one another, and broadening their minds; while at the same time they helped to develop the commerce which kept the nations in touch. ||做了|||||||||||进入||||||拓宽视野|他们的|||||||||||||||||| |||||||||||||||||||expanding|||||||||||||trade|||||| لقد فعلت الحروب الصليبية الكثير، من خلال جعل شعوب أوروبا المختلفة على اتصال مع بعضها البعض، وتوسيع عقولهم. وفي الوقت نفسه ساعدوا في تطوير التجارة التي أبقت الأمم على اتصال. The long struggle between the Papacy and the Empire, as we have seen, broke down the power of each, and so prepared the way for the rise of new institutions. |长时间|||||||||||||||||||||||||||| إن الصراع الطويل بين البابوية والإمبراطورية، كما رأينا، أدى إلى تحطيم سلطة كل منهما، ومهّد الطريق لنشوء مؤسسات جديدة. And the Hundred Years' War between France and England, by making these nations feel that they were  French and English, helped to complete the break-up of the old system, and bring in a time when all Europe was divided into a number of national states, each with its own interests and government, and owing obedience to no emperor or other superior. |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||带来||一个|||||||||||||||||||||||||||| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||due to|||||||higher authority وساعدت حرب المائة عام بين فرنسا وإنجلترا، من خلال جعل هذه الدول تشعر بأنها فرنسية وإنجليزية، في استكمال تفكك النظام القديم، وجاءت في الوقت الذي كانت فيه أوروبا بأكملها مقسمة إلى عدد من الدول الوطنية. ولايات، ولكل منها مصالحها وحكومتها الخاصة، ولا تدين بالطاعة لأي إمبراطور أو رئيس آخر. The capture of Constantinople by the Turks and the fall of the Eastern Empire was another event which helped bring the Middle Ages to a close. 这||||||土耳其人|||||||||||||使得|||||| كان استيلاء الأتراك على القسطنطينية وسقوط الإمبراطورية الشرقية حدثًا آخر ساعد في إنهاء العصور الوسطى. The capture of Constantinople by the Turks and the fall of the Eastern Empire was another event which helped bring the Middle Ages to a close. After the Crusades had come to an end, a new branch of Turks, called the Ottomans, had risen to power. |||||||||||||||Ottoman Turks|||| |||||||||||||||османи|||| وبعد انتهاء الحروب الصليبية، صعد إلى السلطة فرع جديد من الأتراك، يُدعى العثمانيون. In the course of a century and a half, they made themselves masters of all Asia Minor and Palestine, and of a good part of Southeastern Europe as well. ||||一个||||||||||||||||的|||||||| ||||||||||||||||Minor|||||||||||| وفي غضون قرن ونصف، أصبحوا سادة على كل آسيا الصغرى وفلسطين، وعلى جزء كبير من جنوب شرق أوروبا أيضًا. At Adrianople, where the Goths had won their first great victory, they fixed their capital; and their "horse-tail" standards were thence borne far up the valley of the Danube, into Hungary and Austria. |||||||||||||||||马|||||||||||||||| |||||||||||||||||||flags||from there|carried|||||||||Hungary|| وفي أدرنة، حيث حقق القوط أول نصر عظيم لهم، ثبتوا عاصمتهم؛ ومن ثم انتقلت معايير "ذيل الحصان" الخاصة بهم إلى أعلى وادي نهر الدانوب، إلى المجر والنمسا. But for many years the walls of Constantinople proved too much for them; and there the Eastern Empire prolonged its feeble existence. ||||||||remained||||||||||extended its existence||weak| ||||||||||||||||||||слабке| ولكن ظلت أسوار القسطنطينية سنين طويلة فوق طاقتهم؛ وهناك أطالت الإمبراطورية الشرقية وجودها الضعيف. When the Hundred Years' War was just coming to an end, a new sultan came to the throne whose entire energies were devoted to the capture of that city and the making it his capital. |||||是|刚刚|||||||苏丹||||||||||||||||||||| |||||||||||||sultan|||||||efforts||dedicated|||||||||||| ||||||||||||||||||||||присвячені|||||||||||| عندما كانت حرب المائة عام على وشك الانتهاء، وصل سلطان جديد إلى العرش وكرس كل طاقاته للاستيلاء على تلك المدينة وجعلها عاصمته. In 1453 the attack began. في عام 1453 بدأ الهجوم. Great cannons,—the largest the world had ever seen,—now thundered away, along with catapults, battering-rams, and other engines which the Middle Ages used. ||||||||||||||投石机|||||||||| |cannons|||||||||boomed||||siege engines|||||||||| ||||||||||||||катапульти|батарейні тара|барабани|||||||| انطلقت المدافع العظيمة، وهي الأكبر التي شهدها العالم على الإطلاق، جنبًا إلى جنب مع المقاليع والمدقق والمحركات الأخرى التي استخدمتها العصور الوسطى. After fifty-three days, the city was taken. وبعد ثلاثة وخمسين يومًا، تم الاستيلاء على المدينة. Then the Christian churches became Mohammedan mosques; and the standard of the Sultans floated where for a thousand years had hung the banner of the Eastern Emperors. ||||||||这|旗帜|||||在哪里||||||悬挂|||||| ||||||||||||sultans|waved gently|||||||hung||flag|||| ||||||||||||султани|||||||||||||| ثم أصبحت الكنائس المسيحية مساجد محمدية؛ وطفو راية السلاطين حيث علقت راية الأباطرة الشرقيين منذ ألف عام. In this way was established the Ottoman Empire, the continued existence of which causes some of the hardest problems which the Christian nations have to face to-day. ||||||奥斯曼||||||||||||||||||||| ||||||Ottoman||||||||||||||||||||| وبهذه الطريقة تأسست الإمبراطورية العثمانية، التي يسبب استمرار وجودها بعضًا من أصعب المشاكل التي يتعين على الأمم المسيحية مواجهتها اليوم.

All these events which we have been recounting helped to bring the Middle Ages to a close; but other things helped even more than these. ||||我们|有||叙述||||||||||||||||| |||||||narrating||||||||||||||||| كل هذه الأحداث التي رويناها ساعدت في إنهاء العصور الوسطى. لكن أشياء أخرى ساعدت أكثر من هذه. One was what we call the Revival of Learning; another was certain great inventions which the later Middle Ages produced; and a third was the discovery of new lands and new peoples across the seas. |||||||||||某些||伟大发明||||||||||||||||||||| ||||||Renaissance|||||||innovations||||||created|||||||||||||||oceans أحدهما كان ما نسميه إحياء التعلم؛ وكان آخرها بعض الاختراعات العظيمة التي أنتجتها العصور الوسطى اللاحقة؛ والثالث هو اكتشاف أراضٍ جديدة وشعوب جديدة عبر البحار.

Although the monks had done much for learning during the Middle Ages, nevertheless a great deal of the knowledge and literature of the olden time had disappeared. ||||做|||||||||||||||||||||| |||||||||||||||||||||||ancient times||| على الرغم من أن الرهبان قد فعلوا الكثير من أجل التعلم خلال العصور الوسطى، إلا أن قدرًا كبيرًا من المعرفة والأدب في العصر القديم قد اختفى. Many of the most famous works of the old Greek and Latin authors had been lost sight of altogether. ||||||||||||writers||||||completely lost ||||||||||||||||||повністю لقد فقدت العديد من الأعمال الأكثر شهرة للمؤلفين اليونانيين واللاتينيين القدماء تمامًا. Others, also, which the monks had, they did not understand; and still others they almost feared to read because they were full of the stories of the old gods, whom the Middle Ages regarded as evil spirits. ||||||||||||||几乎|||||||||||||||||||||| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||considered||| والبعض الآخر الذي كان عند الرهبان لم يفهموه. وأخرى كانوا يخشون قراءتها تقريبًا لأنها كانت مليئة بقصص الآلهة القديمة، الذين اعتبرتهم العصور الوسطى أرواحًا شريرة. The Latin, too, which the monks spoke and wrote was very incorrect and corrupt; and practically no one outside of the Eastern Empire understood Greek at all. |||||||||||||incorrect||||||||||||| كما أن اللاتينية التي تكلم بها الرهبان وكتبوها كانت غير صحيحة وفاسدة للغاية؛ وعمليًا لم يكن أحد خارج الإمبراطورية الشرقية يفهم اللغة اليونانية على الإطلاق.

About the beginning of the fourteenth century, however, men began to take a new interest in the old literature. 关于|||||||||||开始关注|||兴趣|||| |||||fourth||||||||||||| ومع بداية القرن الرابع عشر، بدأ الناس يهتمون من جديد بالأدب القديم. They began to write more correct Latin. |||||正确的| بدأوا في كتابة اللغة اللاتينية الصحيحة. They searched for forgotten manuscripts which might contain some of the lost works. |||被遗忘的||||||||| ||||written works|||hold||||| وقاموا بالبحث عن المخطوطات المنسية التي قد تحتوي على بعض الأعمال المفقودة. They corrected and edited the manuscripts they had, and began to make dictionaries and grammars to aid them in understanding them. |||revised|||||||||||grammatical rules|||||| وقاموا بتصحيح وتنقيح المخطوطات التي لديهم، وبدأوا في إعداد القواميس وقواعد النحو لمساعدتهم على فهمها. Soon some began even to learn Greek, and collect Greek manuscripts as well as Latin ones. ||||||||||documents||||| وسرعان ما بدأ البعض في تعلم اللغة اليونانية، وجمع المخطوطات اليونانية بالإضافة إلى المخطوطات اللاتينية. Above all, scholars tried to put themselves back in the place of the old Greeks and Romans, and look at the world through their eyes, and not through the eyes of the medieval monks. |||尝试了||置身于||回到|||||||||||||||||||||||||| ||academics||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||Middle Ages| وفوق كل شيء، حاول العلماء أن يضعوا أنفسهم مرة أخرى مكان الإغريق والرومان القدماء، وأن ينظروا إلى العالم من خلال عيونهم، وليس من خلال عيون رهبان العصور الوسطى. The result was that many things began to seem different to them. وكانت النتيجة أن أشياء كثيرة بدأت تبدو مختلفة بالنسبة لهم. They no longer feared this world as the monks had done. ||||||||||那样做过 ولم يعودوا يخافون هذا العالم كما كان يفعل الرهبان. They took delight in its beauty, and no longer thought that everything which was pleasant was therefore sinful. |||||||不再||||一切||曾经是||曾经是||罪恶的 |||||||||||||||||immoral ||задоволення|||||||||||||||гріховним لقد استمتعوا بجمالها، ولم يعودوا يعتقدون أن كل ما هو ممتع كان خطيئة. And because they believed that man's life as a human being was good in itself, the new scholars were called "humanists," and their studies and ways of thinking "humanism. " ||||||||||||良好|||||||||||||||| ||||||||||||||||||||human scholars||||||||humanism ||||||||||||||||||||гуманісти||||||||гуманізм ولأنهم يعتقدون أن حياة الإنسان كإنسان جيدة في حد ذاتها، فقد أطلق على العلماء الجدد اسم "الإنسانويين"، ودراساتهم وطرق تفكيرهم "الإنسانية". This change in the way of thinking came only gradually, and it was a hundred years before humanism began to spread from Italy, where it first arose, to the countries north of the Alps. |||||||出现|仅仅|||它||||||||||||哪里|||||||||| ولم يحدث هذا التغيير في طريقة التفكير إلا بشكل تدريجي، وقد مر مائة عام قبل أن تبدأ الإنسانية في الانتشار من إيطاليا، حيث نشأت لأول مرة، إلى بلدان شمال جبال الألب. But then the Germans contributed something which helped to spread humanism more rapidly. ||这个|||||||||| ||||aided|||||||| ولكن بعد ذلك ساهم الألمان بشيء ساعد في نشر الإنسانية بسرعة أكبر. This was the invention of printing. |||creation of printing||publication technology وكان هذا اختراع الطباعة.

The making of books, by forming each letter in each copy, separately with the pen, was so slow that men had long hunted for some means of lessening the labor. ||||||每个|||||||||||缓慢||||长时间||||||减少劳动|| |||||||||||individually||||||||||||||||reducing|| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||зменшення|| وكان صنع الكتب، بتشكيل كل حرف في كل نسخة على حدة بالقلم، بطيئاً جداً حتى أن الناس ظلوا منذ زمن طويل يبحثون عن وسيلة ما لتقليل العمل. They found that by engraving the page upon a block of wood, and printing from this, they could make a hundred copies almost as easily as one, so in the fifteenth century "block books," as they were called, began to be made. ||||||页||||||||||||||||几乎||||||||||||||||||| ||||printing|||||||||||||||||copies|||||||||||||||||||| ||||гравіювання||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||| ووجدوا أنه من خلال نقش الصفحة على قطعة من الخشب، والطباعة منها، يمكنهم عمل مائة نسخة بسهولة تقريبًا مثل نسخة واحدة، لذلك في القرن الخامس عشر، بدأ صنع "الكتب الورقية"، كما كانت تسمى. But the trouble with these was that every page had to be engraved separately, and this proved such a task that only books of a very few pages were made in this way. ||||||||||||||||turned out|||||||||||||||| لكن المشكلة في ذلك كانت أنه كان لا بد من نقش كل صفحة على حدة، وقد ثبت أن هذه مهمة لدرجة أنه لم يتم صنع سوى كتب مكونة من صفحات قليلة جدًا بهذه الطريقة.

Then it occurred to John Gutenberg, of Strasburg, that if he made the letters separate, he could use the same ones over and over again to form new pages; and if instead of cutting the letters themselves, he made moulds  to produce them, then he could cast his type in metal (which would be better than wood anyway), and from the one mould he could make as many of each letter as was necessary. |它||用于||||斯特拉斯堡||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||模具|||||||||字母|||||||||||||||||制作|||||||| ||happened|||Gutenberg||Strasbourg||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||casts|||||||create molds for||type||||||||||||||molds||||||||||| |||||||Штрасбург||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||формочки|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||| ثم خطر لجون جوتنبرج، من ستراسبورج، أنه إذا قام بفصل الحروف، فيمكنه استخدام نفس الحروف مرارًا وتكرارًا لتشكيل صفحات جديدة؛ وإذا بدلًا من قطع الحروف نفسها، صنع قوالب لإنتاجها، فيمكنه صب نوعه من المعدن (والذي سيكون أفضل من الخشب على أي حال)، ويمكنه من القالب الواحد أن يصنع أكبر عدد ممكن من كل حرف كما هو ضروري. .

In this way printing from movable metal types was invented by Gutenberg, about the year 1450. |||||||铅字||||||| |||||mobile||||created||||| وبهذه الطريقة اخترع جوتنبرج الطباعة من أنواع المعادن المتحركة حوالي عام 1450. It seems like a very small thing when we tell about it, but it was one of the most important inventions that the world has ever seen. |||||||||讲述||||它|||||||发明||这个||拥有|| قد يبدو الأمر صغيرًا جدًا عندما نحكي عنه، لكنه كان أحد أهم الاختراعات التي شهدها العالم على الإطلاق. The first book that was printed was the Bible. أول كتاب تم طباعته هو الكتاب المقدس. Soon presses and printing offices were established all over Western Europe, printing Bibles and other books, and selling them so cheaply that almost every one could now afford to buy. |||||||||||||||||||||||||||could now purchase|| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||собі дозволити|| وسرعان ما تم إنشاء المطابع ومكاتب الطباعة في جميع أنحاء أوروبا الغربية، حيث قامت بطباعة الأناجيل والكتب الأخرى، وبيعها بأسعار رخيصة جدًا بحيث أصبح بإمكان كل فرد تقريبًا الآن شراءها. The invention of printing thus served to spread humanism and the knowledge of the Bible throughout Europe, and these two together brought on the Reformation and helped put an end entirely to the Middle Ages. |||||||||||||||||||||||||||结束||||||| |||||||||||||||across all||||||||||||||||||| وهكذا ساهم اختراع الطباعة في نشر النزعة الإنسانية ومعرفة الكتاب المقدس في جميع أنحاء أوروبا، وقد أدى هذان الأمران معًا إلى حركة الإصلاح الديني وساعدا في وضع نهاية كاملة للعصور الوسطى.

The introduction of gunpowder was also, in the end, of very great importance. |||火药||||||的||| |introduction||explosives||||||||| كان إدخال البارود أيضًا، في النهاية، ذا أهمية كبيرة جدًا. Nobody knows just when or by whom gunpowder was invented; but it was used to make rockets and fireworks in India and China long before it was known in Europe. ||||||||||||||||火箭||||||||||||| ||||||||||||||||rockets||fireworks||||||||||| لا أحد يعرف متى أو من اخترع البارود؛ ولكن تم استخدامه لصنع الصواريخ والألعاب النارية في الهند والصين قبل وقت طويل من ظهوره في أوروبا. In the fourteenth century the Moors of Spain introduced the use of cannon into Europe; and by the date of the battle of Crecy (1346) cannon were to be found in most of the western countries. |||||||||||||||||这||||||||曾经是||||||||| ||||||||||||artillery piece|||||||||||||||||||||| في القرن الرابع عشر، أدخل المغاربة في إسبانيا استخدام المدفع إلى أوروبا؛ وبحلول تاريخ معركة كريسي (1346) كان المدفع موجودًا في معظم الدول الغربية. These, however, were usually small, and were often composed merely of iron staves roughly hooped together, or even of wood or of leather; and the powder used was weak and without sufficient force to throw the ball any great distance. ||||||||||||木条||箍住|||||||||||火药|||||||||||||| ||||||||made||||staves||banded|||||||||||powder|||||||||||projectile||| ||||||||||||||обручами з'є||||||||||||||||||||||||| ومع ذلك، كانت هذه عادةً صغيرة الحجم، وغالبًا ما كانت تتكون فقط من عصي حديدية مربوطة ببعضها البعض تقريبًا، أو حتى من الخشب أو الجلد؛ وكان المسحوق المستخدم ضعيفًا وبدون قوة كافية لرمي الكرة لمسافة كبيرة. Однако они были, как правило, небольшими и часто состояли просто из железных шестов, грубо скрепленных между собой обручами, или даже из дерева или кожи, а используемый порох был слабым и не обладал достаточной силой, чтобы бросить мяч на большое расстояние. It was not gunpowder, as is sometimes said, that first overthrew the armored knight of the Middle Ages; it was the archers, and the foot-soldiers armed with long pikes for thrusting, and with halberds hooked at the end by means of which the knight might be pulled from his horse. |||||||||第一|||装甲||||||||||||||||||||||戟|||||||||||||||| ||||||||||toppled over|||||||||||||||||||spears||poking or stabbing|||weapons with hooks|||||||||||||||| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||thrusting|||ハルバード|||||||||||||||| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||долота|||||алебарди|||||||||||||||| لم يكن البارود، كما يقال أحيانًا، هو أول من أطاح بفارس العصور الوسطى المدرع؛ لقد كانوا الرماة، وجنود المشاة المسلحين بأحراب طويلة للدفع، ومطردات معقوفة في نهايتها يمكن من خلالها سحب الفارس من حصانه. Не порох, как иногда утверждают, стал первым средним оружием, повергшим закованного в броню рыцаря Средневековья, а лучники и пешие воины, вооруженные длинными пиками для метания и алебардами с крюками на конце, с помощью которых рыцаря можно было стащить с коня. As the cannon were improved, however, they became of great service in breaking down the walls of feudal castles, and of hostile cities; and so, in the end, they helped greatly to change the mode of making war. ||artillery pieces|||||||||||||||||||adversarial|||||||||||||||| ولكن مع تحسين المدافع، أصبحت ذات فائدة عظيمة في تحطيم أسوار القلاع الإقطاعية والمدن المعادية؛ وهكذا، في النهاية، ساعدوا كثيرًا في تغيير طريقة شن الحرب. But it was not until the Middle Ages had quite come to an end that gunpowder had become so useful in small hand guns that the old long-bows and crossbows completely disappeared. ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||弩|| ولكن لم يصبح البارود مفيدًا جدًا في البنادق اليدوية الصغيرة إلا بعد انتهاء العصور الوسطى تمامًا، حتى اختفت الأقواس الطويلة والنشاب القديمة تمامًا.

Two other inventions that came into use in the Middle Ages were also of great importance in bringing in the new time. ||||出现|||||||||||||带来|||| وهناك اختراعان آخران دخلا حيز الاستخدام في العصور الوسطى وكان لهما أيضًا أهمية كبيرة في دخول العصر الجديد. These were the compass, or magnetic needle, and the "cross-staff" used by sailors for finding latitude. |||compass||magnetic|magnetic needle||||cross-staff||||||latitude كانت هذه هي البوصلة، أو الإبرة المغناطيسية، و"العصا المتقاطعة" التي يستخدمها البحارة للعثور على خط العرض. Like gunpowder, the compass came from Asia, where it was used by the Chinese long before the birth of Christ. مثل البارود، جاءت البوصلة من آسيا، حيث استخدمها الصينيون قبل وقت طويل من ميلاد المسيح. It was introduced into Europe as a guide to sailors about the beginning of the fourteenth century. |||||||manual for navigation||||||||| وقد تم تقديمه إلى أوروبا كدليل للبحارة في بداية القرن الرابع عشر تقريبًا. It enabled them to steer steadily in whatever direction they wished, even when far from land; but it could not tell them where they were at any given time. |made possible|||navigate|consistently||||||||||||||||||||||| لقد مكنتهم من التوجيه بثبات في أي اتجاه يرغبون فيه، حتى عندما يكونون بعيدًا عن الأرض؛ لكنها لم تتمكن من إخبارهم بمكان وجودهم في أي وقت. The cross-staff did this in part, for it could tell them their latitude by measuring the height of the north star above the horizon. 这个|||做||||||||||||||||||||| ||measurement tool|||||||||||latitude||||altitude, elevation|||||||horizon لقد فعل الطاقم المتقاطع هذا جزئيًا، لأنه كان بإمكانه إخبارهم بخط العرض عن طريق قياس ارتفاع النجم الشمالي فوق الأفق. The "astrolabe" was another instrument which was used for the same purpose. |navigational instrument|||||||||| |astrolabe = astrolabe|||||||||| وكان "الأسطرلاب" أداة أخرى تم استخدامها لنفس الغرض. These were very ancient instruments, but they did not begin to be used by sailors until some time in the fifteenth century. كانت هذه أدوات قديمة جدًا، لكن لم يبدأ استخدامها من قبل البحارة إلا في وقت ما في القرن الخامس عشر. Even then the sailor had to trust to guess-work for his longitude, for the watches and chronometers by which ship captains now measure longitude were not yet invented; and sailing maps were only beginning to be made. |||||||||||||||||计时器||||||||是|||||||||开始制作||| ||||||||||||longitude|||||chronometers|||||||||||||||||||| |||||||||||||||||chronometers|||||||||||||||||||| وحتى في ذلك الوقت، كان على البحار أن يثق في تخمين خط الطول الخاص به، لأن الساعات والكرونومترات التي يقيس بها قباطنة السفن الآن خطوط الطول لم تكن قد اخترعت بعد؛ وكانت خرائط الإبحار قد بدأت للتو.

Yes, in spite of these disadvantages, and in spite of the smallness of the vessels, and the terrors of unknown seas, great progress was made in the discovery of new lands before the close of our period. |||||||||||渺小||||||恐惧|||||||||||||||这|||| |||||drawbacks, downsides, limitations||||||size, insignificance|||ships|||fears||||||||||||||||||| ||незважаючи на|||||||||маленькість||||||||||||||||||||||||| نعم، على الرغم من هذه العيوب، وعلى الرغم من صغر السفن، وأهوال البحار المجهولة، فقد تم إحراز تقدم كبير في اكتشاف أراض جديدة قبل نهاية عصرنا. The commerce of the Italian cities made their citizens skillful sailors, voyaging up and down the Mediterranean and even beyond the straits of Gibraltar. |||||||||||航行|||||||甚至|||海峡|| |||||||||||traveling by sea||||||||||straits|| |||||||||||||||||||||протоки|| جعلت تجارة المدن الإيطالية من مواطنيها بحارة ماهرين، يسافرون ذهابًا وإيابًا في البحر الأبيض المتوسط وحتى إلى ما وراء مضيق جبل طارق. The Normans and certain of the Spanish peoples, early sailed boldly into the northern and western seas. |||某些|||||早期||大胆地|||||| |||some specific|||||||courageously|||||| أبحر النورمانديون وبعض الشعوب الإسبانية في وقت مبكر بجرأة إلى البحار الشمالية والغربية. But it was the little state of Portugal that led the way in the discovery of new worlds. |它|||||||||||||||| |||||||Portugal||guided the way|||||||| لكن دولة البرتغال الصغيرة هي التي قادت الطريق في اكتشاف عوالم جديدة. A prince of that state gave so much attention to discovery in the first half of the fifteenth century, that he was called Prince Henry "the Navigator." ||||||以至于|||||||||||||||||||| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||explorer وقد أولى أحد أمراء تلك الولاية اهتمامًا كبيرًا بالاكتشافات في النصف الأول من القرن الخامس عشر، حتى أنه أطلق عليه لقب الأمير هنري "الملاح". Under his wise direction Portuguese seamen began working their way south along the coast of Africa. ||||||开始||||||||| |||||||||||down||shore|| وفي ظل توجيهاته الحكيمة، بدأ البحارة البرتغاليون يشقون طريقهم جنوبًا على طول ساحل إفريقيا. In this way the Madeira and Canary Islands, the Azores, and Cape Verde were discovered one after another before 1450; and after Prince Henry's death, a Portuguese captain succeeded in 1486 in reaching the southernmost point of Africa, to which the Portuguese King gave the name "Cape of Good Hope." ||||||||||||||||||在1450之前||||||||||||||||||||||||||||| ||||Madeira|||||Azores|||Green||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||| وبهذه الطريقة تم اكتشاف جزر ماديرا والكناري وجزر الأزور والرأس الأخضر الواحدة تلو الأخرى قبل عام 1450؛ وبعد وفاة الأمير هنري، نجح قبطان برتغالي عام 1486 في الوصول إلى أقصى نقطة في جنوب أفريقيا، والتي أطلق عليها الملك البرتغالي اسم "رأس الرجاء الصالح". Twelve years later, in 1498, Vasco da Gama realized this hope by reaching the East Indies, and so opened up communication by sea with India. ||||瓦斯科||达·伽马||||||||||||||||| ||||Vasco|of Gama|Gama||||||||East Indies||||||||| وبعد مرور اثني عشر عامًا، في عام 1498، حقق فاسكو دا جاما هذا الأمل من خلال الوصول إلى جزر الهند الشرقية، وبالتالي فتح اتصالات عن طريق البحر مع الهند. Six years before, as we all know, Columbus while trying to reach the same region by sailing westward, discovered the new world of America,—though he died thinking that he had reached Asia and the East Indies. ||||||||||||||||||||||||||去世|||||||||| |||||||||attempting||||||||||||||||||||||||||| قبل ست سنوات، كما نعلم جميعا، اكتشف كولومبوس، أثناء محاولته الوصول إلى نفس المنطقة عن طريق الإبحار غربا، عالم أمريكا الجديد، رغم أنه مات معتقدا أنه وصل إلى آسيا وجزر الهند الشرقية.

So we come to a time when Europe had emerged from the darkness of the Middle Ages, and was preparing, first, to make a reformation in religion, and then to go forth and found new Europes across the seas. ||来到了|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||| |||||||||came forth||||||||||||||||||||||go out||||||| لذا فقد وصلنا إلى الوقت الذي خرجت فيه أوروبا من ظلمات العصور الوسطى، وكانت تستعد أولاً لإجراء إصلاح ديني، ثم المضي قدماً وإيجاد أوروبا جديدة عبر البحار. But the details of these events belong to the story of Modern Times, and not to the Middle Ages. لكن تفاصيل هذه الأحداث تعود إلى قصة العصر الحديث، وليس إلى العصور الوسطى. To complete our story we need only tell what was the condition of each of the principal states of Europe at this time, and point out the part it was to play in the new period. |||||需要|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||| |||||||||||||||||||Europe|||||indicate||||||||||| ولإكمال قصتنا، لا نحتاج إلا إلى أن نروي حالة كل دولة من الدول الرئيسية في أوروبا في ذلك الوقت، ونشير إلى الدور الذي كان من المفترض أن تلعبه في الفترة الجديدة.

Germany was the country which was to take the lead in bringing about the Reformation in religion. كانت ألمانيا الدولة التي أخذت زمام المبادرة في إحداث الإصلاح الديني. Its people were more serious-minded than the peoples south of the Alps, and felt more keenly the evils in the Church; above all, it was there that the great reformer, Martin Luther, was born. |||||serious in thought|||||||||||sharply||||||||||||||reformer|||| ||||||||||||||||гостро|||||||||||||||||| وكان شعبها أكثر جدية في التفكير من شعوب جنوب جبال الألب، وكانوا يشعرون بالشرور في الكنيسة بقوة أكبر؛ وقبل كل شيء، هناك ولد المصلح العظيم مارتن لوثر. But Germany was split up into a great many little states, each with its own prince or king, and each practically independent of the Emperor. ||||||||||||||||或|||||||| ||||||||||||||||||||almost entirely|||| لكن ألمانيا انقسمت إلى عدد كبير جدًا من الدويلات الصغيرة، لكل منها أميرها أو ملكها، وكل منها مستقلة عمليًا عن الإمبراطور. So there was no national strength in Germany; and when the movement began to establish colonies and take possession of the New World, Germany took no part. ||||||||||这个|||||||||||||||| لذلك لم تكن هناك قوة وطنية في ألمانيا؛ وعندما بدأت الحركة في إنشاء المستعمرات والاستيلاء على العالم الجديد، لم تشارك ألمانيا في أي دور.

Italy also was too much split up among rival cities and warring principalities to take any part in colonization; and the Eastern nations, such as Russia and Poland, were not used to the sea. ||||||||||||||参与||||||||||||||||||| ||||||||competing||||duchies||||||colonization|||||||||Poland|||||| وكانت إيطاليا أيضًا منقسمة بين المدن المتنافسة والإمارات المتحاربة لدرجة أنها لم تتمكن من المشاركة في الاستعمار؛ أما الدول الشرقية، مثل روسيا وبولندا، فلم تكن معتادة على البحر. Sweden for a while became very powerful in the seventeenth century, owing to the ability of its great King, Gustavus Adolphus, and it established colonies on the river Delaware. |||||||||||||||||||古斯塔夫|古斯塔夫·阿道夫||||||||德拉瓦尔河 |||||||||||due to||||||||Gustavus Adolphus|Gustavus Adolphus||||||||Delaware River أصبحت السويد لبعض الوقت قوية للغاية في القرن السابع عشر، وذلك بفضل قدرة ملكها العظيم جوستافوس أدولفوس، فأنشأت مستعمرات على نهر ديلاوير. The Dutch also for a time became a great seafaring people, and established colonies on the banks of the Hudson. |||||||||航海|||||||||| |Dutch||||||||maritime|||||||||| |||||||||marittimo|||||||||| أصبح الهولنديون أيضًا لفترة من الوقت شعبًا عظيمًا في الملاحة البحرية، وأنشأوا مستعمرات على ضفاف نهر هدسون. Both these countries, however, soon lost their strength, and their colonies, for the most part, passed into the hands of larger and stronger nations. Both of these||||||||||||||||||||||| لكن هذين البلدين سرعان ما فقدا قوتهما، وانتقلت مستعمراتهما في معظمها إلى أيدي دول أكبر وأقوى.

It was the nations of Western Europe,—England, France, and Spain,—that were to take the lead in building up new Europes across the water. ||||||||||||曾经是|||||||||||| وكانت دول أوروبا الغربية، إنجلترا وفرنسا وأسبانيا، هي التي أخذت زمام المبادرة في بناء أوروبا جديدة عبر المياه. England at the close of the Middle Ages was just coming out of the long War of the Roses which was mentioned in the last chapter. ||||||||是|刚刚|正在出现|||||玫瑰战争|||||||||| كانت إنجلترا في نهاية العصور الوسطى قد خرجت للتو من حرب الوردتين الطويلة التي تم ذكرها في الفصل الأخير. That war had brought Henry VII., the grandfather of the great Queen Elizabeth, to the throne; and under him England was strong, united and prosperous. |||||第七||||||||||||||||||| ||||||||||||||||||||||||thriving وقد جلبت تلك الحرب هنري السابع، جد الملكة العظيمة إليزابيث، إلى العرش؛ وفي عهده كانت إنجلترا قوية وموحدة ومزدهرة. Thus when the Venetian, John Cabot, asked King Henry for ships to sail westward to the lands newly found by Columbus, his request was granted. |||||卡博特||||||||||||||||||| |||from Venice|||||||||||||||||||appeal||approved وهكذا عندما طلب جون كابوت، البندقية، من الملك هنري السفن للإبحار غربًا إلى الأراضي التي اكتشفها كولومبوس حديثًا، تمت الموافقة على طلبه. In that way the beginning was made of a claim which, after many years, gave the English the possession of all the eastern part of North America. |||的||||||||||||||||||||||| وبهذه الطريقة، كانت البداية للمطالبة التي منحت الإنجليز، بعد سنوات عديدة، ملكية الجزء الشرقي بأكمله من أمريكا الشمالية.

France also was strong, united, and prosperous at the close of the Middle Ages. وكانت فرنسا أيضًا قوية وموحدة ومزدهرة في نهاية العصور الوسطى. Through several centuries the kings had been busy breaking down the influence of the great nobles, and gathering the power into their own hands. ||||||一直||||||||||||||||| على مدى عدة قرون، كان الملوك منشغلين في تحطيم نفوذ النبلاء العظماء، وجمع السلطة في أيديهم. So France was ready to take part in the exploration and settlement of the New World; and the result was that the French got Canada and Louisiana, and for a while it seemed as though the whole of the great Mississippi basin was about to pass into their hands also. |||准备好|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||似乎||||||||||||||||| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||Louisiana||||||||||||||Mississippi River basin|||about|||||| لذلك كانت فرنسا مستعدة للمشاركة في استكشاف واستيطان العالم الجديد؛ وكانت النتيجة أن استولى الفرنسيون على كندا ولويزيانا، وبدا لبعض الوقت كما لو أن حوض المسيسيبي العظيم بأكمله على وشك أن يقع في أيديهم أيضًا.

But it was Spain that was to take the chief part in the work of making known the New World to the Old, and in establishing there the first colonies. |||||||承担|the|||||||传播|||||||||||||| لكن إسبانيا هي التي كان عليها أن تلعب الدور الرئيسي في العمل على تعريف العالم الجديد بالقديم، وفي إنشاء المستعمرات الأولى هناك. From the days when the Moors came into Spain in 711, the Spanish Christians had been occupied for nearly eight hundred years in defending themselves in the mountains against the Mohammedans and in winning back, bit by bit, the land which the Goths had lost. |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||这个|||||| |||||||||||||||occupied|||||||||||||||||||||||||||| منذ الأيام التي جاء فيها المغاربة إلى إسبانيا عام 711، كان المسيحيون الإسبان منشغلين لما يقرب من ثمانمائة عام بالدفاع عن أنفسهم في الجبال ضد المسلمين واستعادة الأرض التي فقدها القوط شيئًا فشيئًا. Little by little, new states had there arisen—Castile, Leon, Aragon, and Portugal. ||||||||卡斯蒂利亚||阿拉贡|| ||||||||Castile||Aragon|| وشيئًا فشيئًا، نشأت دول جديدة هناك: قشتالة، وليون، وأراغون، والبرتغال. Next these states began to unite—Leon with Castile, and then (by the marriage of Isabella to Ferdinand) Castile with Aragon. |||||||||||||||||费尔南多||| |||||||||||||||||Ferdinand of Aragon||| بعد ذلك بدأت هذه الولايات تتحد: ليون مع قشتالة، ثم (بزواج إيزابيلا من فرديناند) قشتالة مع أراغون. In the year 1492, the last of the Moors were overcome, and the whole peninsula, except Portugal alone, was united under one king and queen. |||这个|||||||||||||||||||| وفي عام 1492، تم التغلب على آخر المغاربة، واتحدت شبه الجزيرة بأكملها، باستثناء البرتغال وحدها، تحت حكم ملك وملكة واحدة. So Spain, too, was made strong, united, and prosperous; and was prepared, with the confidence of victory upon it, to send forth Columbus, Vespucius, De Soto, Cortez, and Magellan, to lay the foundations of the first great colonial empire. ||也|||||||||||||||||||||||德索托|科尔特斯||||||||这个|||| ||||||||prosperous|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||colonial| وهكذا أصبحت أسبانيا أيضاً قوية وموحدة ومزدهرة. وكان مستعدًا، بثقة النصر عليه، لإرسال كولومبوس، وفيسبوسيوس، ودي سوتو، وكورتيز، وماجلان، لوضع أسس أول إمبراطورية استعمارية عظيمة.

All this was made possible by the Middle Ages. 所有||是|使得||||| كل هذا أصبح ممكنا بفضل العصور الوسطى. It was the blending of the old Germans with the peoples of the Roman Empire, that made the Spaniards, the French, and, to a certain extent, the English people. ||这个||||||||||||||||||||与|||||| |||mixing||||||||||||||||||||||degree||| لقد كان اندماج الألمان القدامى مع شعوب الإمبراطورية الرومانية هو الذي صنع الإسبان والفرنسيين وإلى حد ما الشعب الإنجليزي. It was the events of the Middle Ages that shaped their development, and formed the strong national monarchies which alone could colonize the New World. ||这些|||||||||||||||君主制|哪个|||||| |||||||||molded||||||||royal governments||||settle in|||New World |||||||||||||||||||||колонізувати||| لقد كانت أحداث العصور الوسطى هي التي شكلت تطورهم، وشكلت الممالك الوطنية القوية التي كانت وحدها قادرة على استعمار العالم الجديد. And it was the institutions and ideas which had been shaped and formed and re-shaped and re-formed in the Middle Ages, that the colonists brought with them from across the sea. |||||||||||||||||||||||||settlers||||||| وكانت المؤسسات والأفكار هي التي تشكلت وتشكلت وأعيد تشكيلها في العصور الوسطى، والتي جلبها المستعمرون معهم عبر البحر. And it was the institutions and ideas which had been shaped and formed and re-shaped and re-formed in the Middle Ages, that the colonists brought with them from across the sea. So, in a way, the story of the Middle Ages is a part of our own history. 所以|||||||||||||||| لذا، فإن قصة العصور الوسطى، بطريقة ما، جزء من تاريخنا. The New World influenced the Old World a very great deal; but it was itself influenced yet more largely by the older one. لقد أثر العالم الجديد على العالم القديم تأثيرًا كبيرًا جدًا؛ لكنها كانت في حد ذاتها متأثرة إلى حد كبير بالنسخة الأقدم.