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The Story of the Middle Ages, 09. The Growth of Feudalism

09. The Growth of Feudalism

Upon the death of Charlemagne, his Empire passed to his son Louis. This ruler is sometimes called "Louis the Pious," because he was so friendly to the Church; and sometimes "Louis the Good-natured," because he was so easy-going and allowed himself to be guided by his wife and his favorites. Under his rule the Empire lost much of the strength that it had possessed under Charlemagne; and after Louis's death, it was still further weakened. His sons had begun fighting for the kingdom even while their father lived. After his death they fought a great battle in which troops of all the Frankish lands took part. The old writers describe this as a terrible struggle,—more terrible than any since Attila and his Huns were driven back by the Romans and the Goths, or the Moors were defeated by Charles Martel. Those battles had been fought by the Christians against peoples who were not Christians; but now Christians fought against Christians, Franks against Franks. "May the day of that battle be accursed!" wrote a writer who himself took part in the struggle. "May it never more be counted among the days of the year, but be wiped out from all remembrance! May it lack the light of the sun, and have neither dawning nor twilight! May that night also be accursed; that terrible night in which so many brave and skillful warriors met their deaths! Never was there a worse slaughter! Men fell in lakes of blood; and the garments of the dead whitened the whole field." As a result of this battle, the three sons of Louis agreed to divide the kingdom among them. Charles, the youngest son, got the western part, and this in course of time grew into the kingdom of FRANCE. Ludwig, the second son, got the land lying east and north of the Rhine River and Alps Mountains; and this region in time became the kingdom of GERMANY. Lothair, the eldest son, got Italy, and a long narrow strip which lay between Charles's portion on the West and Ludwig's portion on the East; and with it he received the title of Emperor. This "middle strip" was long and awkwardly shaped, and there was so little to bind the people together that it never grew into a permanent kingdom. Before many years had gone by, it passed into the hands of the rulers of France and Germany, and the only thing that remained to show its former rule was the name "Lotharingia" or "Lorraine," which is still given to the northern part of it. This division of the kingdom tended, of course, to make the Frankish power weaker. Other things, too, contributed to this end. The Carolingian princes (as the descendants of Charles are called) were not nearly as strong rulers as their grandfather had been; new enemies, moreover, had now arisen to trouble the land, and make the task of governing it more difficult. The Moors of Spain and Africa were going far into the heart of France and Italy in their search for plunder and slaves. On the North and West fleets of Viking ships, laden with fierce Northmen from Denmark and Norway, were landing upon the coast, or ascending in their light vessels far up the rivers, plundering, killing, and burning. And from the East the Hungarians—a new race, of close kin to the old Huns—were now advancing year after year up the Danube valley, into Germany, into Italy, into France, carrying everywhere terror and dismay.

Since the kings of this period were too weak to protect the land against attack, the people were obliged to look after their own defence. The result was that rich and powerful landowners began to build great gloomy towers and castles as a protection against these raids. In course of time every lofty hill-top, every cliff, every island in the great rivers, came to have a castle, where the lord and his followers might find protection against their enemies. There was now no power in the state either to protect or to punish its subjects; so these lords not only used their castles as a defence against the Hungarians and other enemies, but often themselves oppressed their neighbors. From their strongholds they would sally forth to misuse the peasants of the country around, or to plunder merchants travelling from town to town. Everything was fallen into confusion; and it seemed as if the time told of in the Bible, when "every man did that which seemed good in his own eyes," had again come upon earth. There seemed to be only one remedy against these evils for the ordinary freeman. This was to give up his independence, and get the lord of some castle to agree to protect him against all other enemies. That, in fact, is just what we find going on in this period. Men everywhere were giving up their independence, and becoming the dependents of some great man who took them under his protection.

When a freeman wished to "commend himself," as it was called, to the protection of a lord, he went down on his knees before him, put his hands between the hands of the lord, and swore to be "his man"—that is, to serve him. Then the lord raised his "vassal," as the man was thenceforth called, and gave him the kiss of peace. This was called "doing homage" to the lord. Next the vassal swore to be faithful to his lord in all things; this was the "oath of fealty." If the man had land in his own right, he usually gave it up to the lord, and the lord then gave him back the use of it. If he had no land before, the lord granted him the use of some of his own land; and a lance, or a twig, was given him at the time he did homage, in sign of this. Thenceforth the lord was the real owner of the land, but the vassal had the use of it till his death. When he died, his son would do homage and swear fealty to the lord, and then he would be given the land his father held. Such a piece of land was called a "benefice" or a "fief," and the name which is given to the whole system was "feudalism," or the "feudal system." As a result of this system the ordinary freemen gained the protection which they so much needed and the state could no longer furnish. Thenceforth they had a place of refuge, in the lord's castle, to which they could flee when robber bands appeared; and they also had a powerful protector to defend them against the attacks of other lords. "But," you may ask, "what good was all this to the lord of the castle? Why was he willing to admit these men to become his vassals, and even grant them parts of his own lands as benefices?" That is a question which is easily answered. The lord needed men to help him guard his castle, and fight his battles; and that was what the vassals supplied. Every year they might be called upon to serve their lord as armored knights for forty days in the field, besides rendering him other services. In this way the lord obtained military followers, who were closely bound to him by ties of homage and fealty; and the more vassals he had, the more powerful he became.

The lords themselves in turn often became the vassals of some greater lord above them, and bound themselves to bring all of their followers to serve him, when called upon to do so. In the completed system, the king of the land stood at the head; then under him were his vassals, and under them were their vassals,—and so on until we come down to the peasants. They were not looked upon as worthy to be the vassals of anybody; they were called "serfs" or "villains," and had to till the soil, and raise the food which supported all the classes above them. From what you have been told you might think that feudalism was an organization only for fighting; but it was something more than this. It came to be an organization for governing the land as well. The power of the kings became so weak that the feudal nobles were able finally to take into their own hands most things that the head of the state ought to have done. In this way it came about that the feudal lords had the right to make war, coin money, make laws, and hold courts in their fiefs. Sometimes they had their own gallows on which to hang offenders. The power that ought to have been in the hands of the head of the state was thus split up into many bits, and each of these great lords had part of it.

The growth of the feudal system was going on everywhere in Western Europe from about the eighth to the eleventh centuries. It grew slowly, but it grew surely; for in the weakened condition of the state it was the form of organization that best met the needs of the people. So everywhere,—in Spain, in France, in England, in Germany, and in Italy—we find the feudal castles arising; and men everywhere gave up their free land, received it back as fiefs, and became the vassals of lords above them.

The existence of feudalism is one of the most important facts about the Middle Ages. It is this which makes the government of that period so different from the governments of Greece and Rome, and also from the governments of to-day. Feudalism, moreover, led to other important changes. In the Church it made the abbots and bishops the vassals of the kings and nobles for the land which the Church held; and since vassals owed military service, the bishops and abbots often became more like feudal warriors than mild and holy servants of Christ. Because the chief business of vassals and lords was fighting, much attention was paid to arms and armor, and to training for war. In this way arose the wonderful coats of mail and suits of armor of the Middle Ages; in this way also arose the long training which one had to go through to become a knight, and the exciting "tournaments" in which the knights tried their skill against one another. In another chapter is an account of The Life of the Castle; we tell you of these things here only that you may see how truly we may say of this period, that it was indeed the Feudal Age, as it is sometimes called. Especially is this true of the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries. It is in those centuries preeminently that we find feudalism grown into a complete system, and ruling the whole life of the lands which the German conquerors had won from the Roman Empire.

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09. The Growth of Feudalism |||Medieval social system |||Feudalism |Crescimento||Feudalismo 09. نمو الإقطاع 09. Das Wachstum des Feudalismus 09. El crecimiento del feudalismo 09. L'essor du féodalisme 09. La crescita del feudalesimo 09.封建主義の成長 09. De groei van het feodalisme 09. Wzrost feudalizmu 09. O crescimento do feudalismo 09. Рост феодализма 09. Розвиток феодалізму 09. 封建主义的发展 09. 封建主義的發展

Upon the death of Charlemagne, his Empire passed to his son Louis. |||的|||||||| ||||Карл Великий||||||| عند وفاة شارلمان، انتقلت إمبراطوريته إلى ابنه لويس. Şarlman'ın ölümü üzerine İmparatorluğu oğlu Louis'e geçti. 查理曼死后,他的帝国传给了他的儿子路易。 This ruler is sometimes called "Louis the Pious," because he was so friendly to the Church; and sometimes "Louis the Good-natured," because he was so easy-going and allowed himself to be guided by his wife and his favorites. |||||路易||||||||||||||||和善的||||||随和|||||是||||||| |||||||Devoutly religious||||||||||||||easy-going||||||||||||influenced by||||||trusted advisors |||||||||||||||||||||natured|||||||||||||||||| |||||||o Piedoso||||||||||||||de bom caráter||||||||||||guiado|||||| يُطلق على هذا الحاكم أحيانًا اسم "لويس الورع" لأنه كان ودودًا جدًا مع الكنيسة. وأحيانًا "لويس الطيب" لأنه كان هادئًا جدًا وسمح لنفسه أن تسترشد بزوجته ومفضلاته. Этого правителя иногда называют "Людовиком Благочестивым", поскольку он был так дружелюбен к Церкви; иногда "Людовиком Добродушным", поскольку он был так покладист и позволял себе руководствоваться мнением жены и своих фавориток. Under his rule the Empire lost much of the strength that it had possessed under Charlemagne; and after Louis's death, it was still further weakened. ||||||||||||||||||路易的|||||| ||||||||||||||||||Louis' death|||||even more| ||||||||||||||||||di Luigi|||||| |||||||||||||possuía|||||Luís|||||| وفي ظل حكمه فقدت الإمبراطورية الكثير من القوة التي كانت تمتلكها في عهد شارلمان. وبعد وفاة لويس، زاد ضعفها. Onun yönetimi altında İmparatorluk, Şarlman döneminde sahip olduğu gücün çoğunu kaybetti; ve Louis'nin ölümünden sonra daha da zayıfladı. His sons had begun fighting for the kingdom even while their father lived. بدأ أبناؤه القتال من أجل المملكة حتى أثناء حياة والدهم. After his death they fought a great battle in which troops of all the Frankish lands took part. ||||||伟大的||||||||||| وبعد وفاته خاضوا معركة كبيرة شاركت فيها قوات من جميع أراضي الفرنجة. Após a sua morte, travaram uma grande batalha em que participaram tropas de todas as terras francas. Onun ölümünden sonra, tüm Frank topraklarından birliklerin katıldığı büyük bir savaş yaptılar. 在他去世后,他们进行了一场伟大的战役,参与其中的有所有法兰克地区的军队。 The old writers describe this as a terrible struggle,—more terrible than any since Attila and his Huns were driven back by the Romans and the Goths, or the Moors were defeated by Charles Martel. |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||Muslims||||Карл| ||||||||luta terrível|||||||||||||||||||||||||| يصف الكتاب القدامى هذا الصراع بأنه صراع رهيب، وأكثر فظاعة من أي صراع آخر منذ طرد الرومان والقوط أتيلا والهون، أو هزيمة المغاربة على يد تشارلز مارتل. Eski yazarlar bunu korkunç bir mücadele olarak tanımlarlar; Attila ve Hunlarının Romalılar ve Gotlar tarafından geri püskürtülmesinden ya da Mağribilerin Charles Martel tarafından yenilgiye uğratılmasından bu yana yaşananların hepsinden daha korkunçtur. 古老的作家把这描述为一场可怕的斗争——比罗马人和哥特人击退阿提拉及其匈奴人,或查理·马特尔击败摩尔人以来的任何斗争都要可怕。 Those battles had been fought by the Christians against peoples who were not Christians; but now Christians fought against Christians, Franks against Franks. وتلك المعارك خاضها المسيحيون ضد شعوب غير مسيحية؛ لكن المسيحيين الآن قاتلوا المسيحيين، والفرنجة ضد الفرنجة. 那些战役是基督徒与非基督徒作斗争;但现在基督徒之间也相互斗争,法兰克人与法兰克人之间作斗争。 "May the day of that battle be accursed!" 愿|||||||被诅咒 |||||||cursed or damned |||||||amaldiçoado |||||||проклятий "فليكن يوم تلك المعركة ملعونا!" "O savaşın olduğu gün lanetlensin!" wrote a writer who himself took part in the struggle. ||participant writer||||||| كتب كاتبًا شارك بنفسه في النضال. kendisi de mücadelede yer almış bir yazar yazdı. "May it never more be counted among the days of the year, but be wiped out from all remembrance! 愿||||被||||日子|||||||||| |||||included|||||||||erased from memory||||memory or recollection ||||||||||||||apagado||||memória "أتمنى ألا يُحسب أبدًا من بين أيام السنة، بل يُمحى من كل ذكر! "May it never more be counted among the days of the year, but be wiped out from all remembrance! "Bir daha asla yılın günleri arasında sayılmasın, tüm hatıralardan silinsin! May it lack the light of the sun, and have neither dawning nor twilight! |||||||||||黎明||黄昏 |||||||||||beginning of day||fading light ||||||||||nem|alvorada||crepúsculo عسى أن يفتقر إلى نور الشمس، فلا يكون له فجر ولا شفق! Güneşin ışığından yoksun olsun ve ne şafağı ne de alacakaranlığı olsun! May that night also be accursed; that terrible night in which so many brave and skillful warriors met their deaths! |||||||||||||||||||mortes لتكن تلك الليلة ملعونة أيضا. تلك الليلة الرهيبة التي لقي فيها الكثير من المحاربين الشجعان والماهرين حتفهم! O gece de lanetlensin; pek çok cesur ve yetenekli savaşçının ölümle buluştuğu o korkunç gece! Never was there a worse slaughter! 从未|||||屠杀 |||||massacre لم تكن هناك مذبحة أسوأ من ذلك! Nunca houve um massacre pior! Hiç bu kadar kötü bir katliam olmamıştı! Men fell in lakes of blood; and the garments of the dead whitened the whole field." ||||||||||||变白的||| ||||||||clothes of the dead||||turned white||| |||lagos|||||as vestes||||se tornaram brancas||| سقط الرجال في بحيرات من الدم. وثياب الموتى بيَّضت الحقل كله». Люди падали в озерах крови, и одежды мертвых белели по всему полю". İnsanlar kan göllerine düştü; ve ölülerin giysileri tüm alanı beyazlattı." As a result of this battle, the three sons of Louis agreed to divide the kingdom among them. |||||||||||||split up|||| |||||||||||||dividir|||| ونتيجة لهذه المعركة اتفق أبناء لويس الثلاثة على تقسيم المملكة بينهم. Bu savaşın sonucunda Louis'nin üç oğlu krallığı aralarında bölüşmeye karar verdiler. Charles, the youngest son, got the western part, and this in course of time grew into the kingdom of FRANCE. Carlos||o mais novo||||||||||||||||| حصل تشارلز، الابن الأصغر، على الجزء الغربي، ومع مرور الوقت تطور إلى مملكة فرنسا. En küçük oğul Charles batı kısmını aldı ve bu zamanla FRANSA krallığına dönüştü. Ludwig, the second son, got the land lying east and north of the Rhine River and Alps Mountains; and this region in time became the kingdom of GERMANY. |||||||位于|||||||||||||||||||| Ludwig II||||||||||||||||||||||||||| Ludwig||||||||||||||||||||||||||| حصل لودفيج، الابن الثاني، على الأرض الواقعة شرق وشمال نهر الراين وجبال الألب. وأصبحت هذه المنطقة بمرور الوقت مملكة ألمانيا. Lothair, the eldest son, got Italy, and a long narrow strip which lay between Charles's portion on the West and Ludwig's portion on the East; and with it he received the title of Emperor. 洛泰尔||长子||||||||||||||||||路德维希||||||||||||| Lothair: eldest son||||||||||||||||||||Ludwig's territory||||||||||||| حصل لوثير، الابن الأكبر، على إيطاليا وشريط طويل ضيق يقع بين جزء تشارلز في الغرب وجزء لودفيج في الشرق؛ ومعه حصل على لقب الإمبراطور. En büyük oğul Lothair, İtalya'yı ve Charles'ın Batı'daki payıyla Ludwig'in Doğu'daki payı arasında kalan uzun ve dar bir şeridi aldı; ve bununla birlikte İmparator unvanını aldı. This "middle strip" was long and awkwardly shaped, and there was so little to bind the people together that it never grew into a permanent kingdom. ||narrow piece||||uncomfortably or inconveniently|formed or structured|||||||unite||||||||||| كان هذا "الشريط الأوسط" طويلًا وشكله غريبًا، ولم يكن هناك سوى القليل جدًا من الروابط التي تربط الناس ببعضهم البعض لدرجة أنه لم يتحول أبدًا إلى مملكة دائمة. Bu "orta şerit" uzun ve garip bir şekle sahipti ve insanları birbirine bağlayacak o kadar az şey vardı ki hiçbir zaman kalıcı bir krallığa dönüşmedi. Before many years had gone by, it passed into the hands of the rulers of France and Germany, and the only thing that remained to show its former rule was the name "Lotharingia" or "Lorraine," which is still given to the northern part of it. 之前|许多|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||洛林||洛林|||||||||| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||previous|||||Lorraine region||Northern region name|||||||||| وقبل مرور سنوات طويلة، انتقلت إلى أيدي حكام فرنسا وألمانيا، ولم يبق منها إلا ما يدل على حكمها السابق هو اسم "لوثارينجيا" أو "اللورين" الذي لا يزال يطلق على الجزء الشمالي. منه. Çok uzun yıllar geçmeden Fransa ve Almanya hükümdarlarının eline geçti ve eski egemenliğini gösteren tek şey, hala kuzey kısmına verilen "Lotharingia" veya "Lorraine" adıydı. This division of the kingdom tended, of course, to make the Frankish power weaker. |||||倾向|||||||| |||||led to|||||||| أدى هذا التقسيم للمملكة بطبيعة الحال إلى إضعاف قوة الفرنجة. Krallığın bu şekilde bölünmesi elbette Frankların gücünü zayıflatma eğilimindeydi. Other things, too, contributed to this end. |||added to||| وساهمت أشياء أخرى أيضاً في تحقيق هذه الغاية. Bu sonuca başka şeyler de katkıda bulunmuştur. The Carolingian princes (as the descendants of Charles are called) were not nearly as strong rulers as their grandfather had been; new enemies, moreover, had now arisen to trouble the land, and make the task of governing it more difficult. |||||||||||||||||||||||||||到|麻烦||||||||||| |descendants of Charles|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||| |каролінгські|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||управління||| لم يكن الأمراء الكارولنجيون (كما يُطلق على أحفاد تشارلز) حكامًا أقوياء كما كان أجدادهم؛ علاوة على ذلك، فقد نشأ الآن أعداء جدد لإزعاج البلاد، وجعل مهمة حكمها أكثر صعوبة. Karolenj prensleri (Charles'ın torunları olarak anılırlar) büyükbabaları kadar güçlü hükümdarlar değildi; dahası, artık ülkeyi rahatsız edecek ve yönetme görevini daha da zorlaştıracak yeni düşmanlar ortaya çıkmıştı. The Moors of Spain and Africa were going far into the heart of France and Italy in their search for plunder and slaves. |||||||去||||||||||||||| كان المغاربة في إسبانيا وإفريقيا يذهبون بعيدًا إلى قلب فرنسا وإيطاليا بحثًا عن النهب والعبيد. İspanya ve Afrika'daki Mağribiler, yağma ve köle arayışlarında Fransa ve İtalya'nın içlerine kadar ilerliyorlardı. On the North and West fleets of Viking ships, laden with fierce Northmen from Denmark and Norway, were landing upon the coast, or ascending in their light vessels far up the rivers, plundering, killing, and burning. ||||||||||||北方人||||||登陆|||||向上|||||||||||| |||||groups of ships||Norse seafarers||filled with|||Norse warriors||||Norwegian territory|||||shoreline||sailing up||||small ships|||||||| كان الأساطيل الشمالية والغربية من سفن الفايكنج، المحملة بشماليين شرسين من الدانمرك والنرويج، تهبط على الساحل، أو تصعد في سفنها الخفيفة بعيدًا عن الأنهار، وتنهب وتقتل وتحرق. Kuzeyde ve batıda, Danimarka ve Norveç'ten gelen vahşi Kuzeylilerle yüklü Viking gemilerinden oluşan filolar kıyıya yanaşıyor ya da hafif gemileriyle nehirlerin yukarısına çıkıyor, yağmalıyor, öldürüyor ve yakıyorlardı. And from the East the Hungarians—a new race, of close kin to the old Huns—were now advancing year after year up the Danube valley, into Germany, into Italy, into France, carrying everywhere terror and dismay. |||||匈牙利人||||||亲属||||||||||||||||||||||||| |||||Hungarian invaders||||||related to|||||||||||||||||||||||fear and panic||fear and distress |||||угорці||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||| ومن الشرق كان المجريون - وهم عرق جديد قريب من الهون القدامى - يتقدمون سنة بعد سنة عبر وادي الدانوب، إلى ألمانيا، إلى إيطاليا، إلى فرنسا، حاملين الرعب والفزع في كل مكان. Ve Doğu'dan Macarlar -eski Hunlarla yakın akraba olan yeni bir ırk- her yıl Tuna vadisine, Almanya'ya, İtalya'ya, Fransa'ya doğru ilerliyor, her yere dehşet ve korku taşıyorlardı.

Since the kings of this period were too weak to protect the land against attack, the people were obliged to look after their own defence. |||||||||||||||||是||||||| وبما أن ملوك هذه الفترة كانوا أضعف من أن يتمكنوا من حماية الأرض من أي هجوم، فقد اضطر الناس إلى الاهتمام بالدفاع عن أنفسهم. Bu dönemin kralları ülkeyi saldırılara karşı koruyamayacak kadar zayıf olduklarından, halk kendi savunmasını kendisi yapmak zorunda kalmıştır. The result was that rich and powerful landowners began to build great gloomy towers and castles as a protection against these raids. |||||||||||||塔|||||||| |||||||property owners|||||dark and foreboding|||||||||attacks or invasions ||||||||||||sombrias|torres||||||||incursões وكانت النتيجة أن ملاك الأراضي الأغنياء والأقوياء بدأوا في بناء أبراج وقلاع كبيرة قاتمة كحماية ضد هذه الغارات. In course of time every lofty hill-top, every cliff, every island in the great rivers, came to have a castle, where the lord and his followers might find protection against their enemies. |||||高耸的||||||||||大河|出现了|||||||||||||||| |||||high or elevated||||steep rock face|||||||||||fortified residence|||||||||||| |||||高い||||||||||||||||||||||||||| |||||високий||||||||||||||||||||||||||| |||||elevado||||penhasco||||||||||||||||||||||| وبمرور الوقت، أصبحت كل قمة تل شاهقة، وكل جرف، وكل جزيرة في الأنهار العظيمة، تحتوي على قلعة، حيث يمكن للسيد وأتباعه أن يجدوا الحماية ضد أعدائهم. Zamanla her yüksek tepede, her uçurumda, büyük nehirlerdeki her adada, lordun ve yandaşlarının düşmanlarına karşı korunabilecekleri bir kale oldu. There was now no power in the state either to protect or to punish its subjects; so these lords not only used their castles as a defence against the Hungarians and other enemies, but often themselves oppressed their neighbors. ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||mistreated|| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||os húngaros||||||||| |||||||||||||punish||||||||||||||||||||||||| ولم يعد هناك الآن أي سلطة في الدولة لحماية رعاياها أو معاقبتهم؛ لذلك لم يستخدم هؤلاء اللوردات قلاعهم للدفاع ضد المجريين والأعداء الآخرين فحسب، بل قاموا في كثير من الأحيان بقمع جيرانهم. Теперь в государстве не было власти, способной защитить или наказать подданных, поэтому лорды не только использовали свои замки для защиты от венгров и других врагов, но и часто сами притесняли своих соседей. Artık devlette tebaasını koruyacak ya da cezalandıracak bir güç yoktu; bu yüzden bu lordlar kalelerini sadece Macarlara ve diğer düşmanlara karşı bir savunma olarak kullanmakla kalmadılar, çoğu zaman kendileri de komşularına baskı yaptılar. From their strongholds they would sally forth to misuse the peasants of the country around, or to plunder merchants travelling from town to town. ||据点|||突袭||||||的|||||||||||| ||fortified bases|||venture out|venture out||abuse||||||||||traveling traders||||| |||||出撃する|||||||||||||||||| |||||sairiam em ataque|||maltratar||os camponeses|||||||||viajando de cidade|||| ||||||||зловживати грабувати||||||||||||||| وكانوا ينطلقون من معاقلهم لإساءة استخدام فلاحي الريف المحيط، أو لنهب التجار الذين يسافرون من مدينة إلى أخرى. Из своих опорных пунктов они выходили на улицы, чтобы погубить крестьян окрестных деревень или ограбить купцов, переезжающих из города в город. Kalelerinden etraftaki köylüleri istismar etmek ya da şehirden şehre seyahat eden tüccarları yağmalamak için dışarı çıkıyorlardı. Everything was fallen into confusion; and it seemed as if the time told of in the Bible, when "every man did that which seemed good in his own eyes," had again come upon earth. |||||||似乎||||||||||||||||||||||||降临|| ||||confusão||||||||||||Bíblia||||||||||||||||| لقد وقع كل شيء في حالة من الارتباك؛ وبدا كما لو أن الوقت المذكور في الكتاب المقدس، عندما "يعمل كل واحد ما يحسن في عينيه"، قد جاء مرة أخرى إلى الأرض. There seemed to be only one remedy against these evils for the ordinary freeman. ||||||solution||||||| |||||||||||||free man |||||||||males||||cidadão comum ويبدو أن هناك علاجًا واحدًا فقط ضد هذه الشرور بالنسبة للرجل الحر العادي. This was to give up his independence, and get the lord of some castle to agree to protect him against all other enemies. ||||||||得到|||||||||||||| كان هذا للتخلي عن استقلاله، والحصول على موافقة سيد القلعة على حمايته من جميع الأعداء الآخرين. That, in fact, is just what we find going on in this period. ||||正是||||发生|||| Men everywhere were giving up their independence, and becoming the dependents  of some great man who took them under his protection. ||||||||||subordinate individuals|||||||||| ||||||||||dependentes|||||||||| كان الرجال في كل مكان يتخلون عن استقلالهم، ويصبحون تابعين لرجل عظيم يأخذهم تحت حمايته.

When a freeman wished to "commend himself," as it was called, to the protection of a lord, he went down on his knees before him, put his hands between the hands of the lord, and swore to be "his man"—that is, to serve him. |||||托付||||||向|||||||跪下|||||||||||||||||||||||||| |||||pledge allegiance to||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||pledged loyalty||||||||| |||||recomendar-se||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||| عندما أراد رجل حر أن "يثني على نفسه"، كما يُقال، لحماية السيد، جثا على ركبتيه أمامه، ووضع يديه بين يدي السيد، وأقسم أن يكون "رجله". أي لخدمته. Когда вольноотпущенник желал "отдаться под защиту" лорда, он становился перед ним на колени, клал свои руки между руками лорда и клялся быть "его человеком", то есть служить ему. Then the lord raised his "vassal," as the man was thenceforth called, and gave him the kiss of peace. |||||附庸||||||||||||| |||||feudal subordinate|||||from then on|||||||| |||||臣下||||||||||||| |||||vassal||||||||||||| |||||vassalo|||||a partir de então||||||beijo|| ثم أقام السيد "تابعه"، كما كان يُدعى الرجل منذ ذلك الحين، وأعطاه قبلة السلام. This was called "doing homage" to the lord. ||||showing respect to||| وكان هذا يسمى "تكريم" الرب. Next the vassal swore to be faithful to his lord in all things; this was the "oath of fealty." 接下来||附庸|||||||||||||||| ||||||||||||||||pledge of loyalty||loyalty or allegiance ||||||||||||||||||忠誠の誓い ||||||||||||||||||вірність сюзерену ||||||||||||||||||fidelidade feudal بعد ذلك أقسم التابع أن يكون مخلصًا لسيده في كل شيء؛ كان هذا "قسم الولاء". If the man had land in his own right, he usually gave it up to the lord, and the lord then gave him back the use  of it. إذا كان الرجل يمتلك أرضًا خاصة به، فإنه عادةً ما يتنازل عنها للرب، ثم يعيد له السيد استخدامها. If he had no land before, the lord granted him the use of some of his own land; and a lance, or a twig, was given him at the time he did homage, in sign of this. |||||||||||||||||||||||嫩枝||||||时候||||||| ||||||||gave him|||||a portion|||||||symbolic object|||small branch|||||||||paid respect|||| ||||||||||||||||||||槍|||小枝||||||||||||| |||||||||||||||||||||||гілка||||||||||||| |||||||||||||||||||||||um ramo||||||||||||| إذا لم يكن لديه أرض من قبل، فقد منحه السيد استخدام بعض أرضه؛ وأعطي له رمحًا أو غصنًا عند أداء البيعة علامة على ذلك. Если у него не было земли, то господин предоставлял ему в пользование часть своей земли; в знак этого ему давали копье или прутик, когда он приносил дань. Thenceforth the lord was the real owner of the land, but the vassal had the use of it till his death. ||||||||||||vasallo|||||||| ومنذ ذلك الحين، أصبح السيد هو المالك الحقيقي للأرض، لكن التابع كان يستخدمها حتى وفاته. When he died, his son would do homage and swear fealty to the lord, and then he would be given the land his father held. ||||||||||效忠|||||||||||||| |||||||||pledge loyalty||||||||||||||| وعندما يموت، يقوم ابنه بأداء الولاء والولاء للرب، ثم يُعطى الأرض التي يملكها والده. Such a piece of land was called a "benefice" or a "fief," and the name which is given to the whole system was "feudalism," or the "feudal system." ||||||||封地|||封地|||||||||||||||| ||||||||land grant|||land granted tenure|||||||||||||||medieval land-based| ||||||||封土|||封土|||||||||||||||| ||||||||феод бенефіцій|||феод|||||||||||||||| ||||||||benefício|||feudo|||||||||||||||feudal| كانت قطعة الأرض هذه تسمى "المنفعة" أو "الإقطاعية"، وكان الاسم الذي أُطلق على النظام بأكمله هو "الإقطاعية" أو "النظام الإقطاعي". As a result of this system the ordinary freemen gained the protection which they so much needed and the state could no longer furnish. ||||||||自由人|||||||||||||||提供 ||||||||free citizens|||||||||||||||provide for ||||||||自由民||||||||||||||| ||||||||freemen = individuals who are not serfs or slaves|||||||||||||||постачати |||||||||||||||||||||||fornecer a ونتيجة لهذا النظام، حصل الأحرار العاديون على الحماية التي كانوا في أمس الحاجة إليها ولم تعد الدولة قادرة على توفيرها لهم. Graças a este sistema, os homens livres comuns obtiveram a proteção de que tanto necessitavam e que o Estado já não podia fornecer. Thenceforth they had a place of refuge, in the lord's castle, to which they could flee when robber bands appeared; and they also had a powerful protector to defend them against the attacks of other lords. |||||||||||||||||强盗|||||||||||||||||| ||||||safe haven|||||||||seek safety|||||||||||||||||||| ||||||refúgio||||||||||||||||||||||defender|||||||senhores منذ ذلك الحين فصاعدًا كان لديهم ملجأ، في قلعة اللورد، حيث يمكنهم الفرار إليه عندما تظهر عصابات اللصوص؛ وكان لديهم أيضًا حامي قوي للدفاع عنهم ضد هجمات اللوردات الآخرين. "But," you may ask, "what good was all this to the lord of the castle? ||||什么|好处|是|||||||| "ولكن،" قد تتساءل، "ما فائدة كل هذا لسيد القلعة؟ Why was he willing to admit these men to become his vassals, and even grant them parts of his own lands as benefices?" |||||||||||附庸|||||||||||封地 |||prepared to accept||allow to join||||||subordinate landholders|||give to them|||||||| |||||||||||vassalos|||||||||||benefícios feudais |||||||||||vassalli|||||||||||феоди земельні наділи لماذا كان على استعداد للسماح لهؤلاء الرجال بأن يصبحوا تابعين له، وحتى منحهم أجزاء من أراضيه كمنفعة؟" That is a question which is easily answered. ذلك هو السؤال الذي يمكن الإجابة عليه بسهولة. The lord needed men  to help him guard his castle, and fight his battles; and that was what the vassals supplied. |||||||||||||||||||vassalos|forneceram وكان السيد يحتاج إلى رجال يساعدونه في حراسة قلعته، وخوض معاركه؛ وهذا ما قدمه التابعون. O senhor precisava de homens para o ajudar a guardar o seu castelo e a travar as suas batalhas; e era isso que os vassalos forneciam. Every year they might be called upon to serve their lord as armored knights for forty days in the field, besides rendering him other services. ||||||||||||盔甲的|||||||||提供服务||| |||||||||||||||||||||providing||| |||||||||||||||||||||提供する||| |||||||||||||||||||||prestar serviços||| قد يتم استدعاؤهم كل عام لخدمة سيدهم كفرسان مدرعين لمدة أربعين يومًا في الميدان، إلى جانب تقديم خدمات أخرى له. Каждый год они могли быть призваны служить своему господину в качестве закованных в броню рыцарей в течение сорока дней в поле, а также оказывать ему другие услуги. 每年,他们可能会被要求作为盔甲骑士为他们的领主在战场上服务四十天,除此之外还要为他提供其他服务。 In this way the lord obtained military followers, who were closely bound to him by ties of homage and fealty; and the more vassals he had, the more powerful he became. |||||||||||||||||效忠||||||附庸||||||| |||||gained|||||strongly|||||bonds||||loyalty and allegiance||||||||||| |||||||||||||||||忠誠の誓い||忠誠の誓い||||||||||| |||||||||||ligados||||||||||||vassalos||||||| وبهذه الطريقة حصل اللورد على أتباع عسكريين، كانوا مرتبطين به بشكل وثيق بروابط الولاء والولاء؛ وكلما زاد عدد أتباعه، أصبح أقوى. 通过这种方式,领主获得了军事追随者,他们与领主通过臣服和忠诚的联系紧密相连;而且臣民越多,他就变得越强大。

The lords themselves in turn often became the vassals of some greater lord above them, and bound themselves to bring all of their  followers to serve him, when called upon to do so. |||||||||||||||||||||||||||当||||| |||as part of|||||||||||||obligated|||||||||||||||| ||||||||vassalos|||||||||||||||||||||||| أصبح اللوردات أنفسهم بدورهم في كثير من الأحيان تابعين لسيد أكبر منهم، وألزموا أنفسهم بإحضار جميع أتباعهم لخدمته، عندما يُطلب منهم القيام بذلك. 领主们自己也常常成为某个更大领主的附庸,并承诺在被召唤时带来他们所有的追随者为其服务。 In the completed system, the king of the land stood at the head; then under him were his  vassals, and under them were their  vassals,—and so on until we come down to the peasants. |||系统|||||||||||||||封臣|||||||||||||||| ||||||||||||||||||||||||vassalos|||||||||| ||||відомий|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||| في النظام المكتمل، وقف ملك الأرض على الرأس؛ ثم كان تحته أتباعه، وتحتهم كان أتباعهم، وهكذا حتى نصل إلى الفلاحين. They were not looked upon as worthy to be the vassals  of anybody; they were called "serfs" or "villains," and had to till the soil, and raise the food which supported all the classes above them. |||被看作|||||||||||||||农奴||||||||||||||||| ||||||||||||||||Peasant laborers||peasants or serfs||||||||||||||||| ||||||||||||||||農奴||農奴||||||||||||||||| ||||||worthy = deserving||||||||||кріпаки||негодяї||||||||||||||||| ||||||||||||||||servos ou vilões||vilões||||cultivar||||produziram||||||||| لم يُنظر إليهم على أنهم يستحقون أن يكونوا تابعين لأي شخص؛ وكان يطلق عليهم اسم "الأقنان" أو "الأشرار"، وكان عليهم أن يحرثوا التربة وينتجوا الطعام الذي يعيل جميع الطبقات التي فوقهم. From what you have been told you might think that feudalism was an organization only for fighting; but it was something more than this. ||||||||||||||||||||某种东西||| مما قيل لك قد تعتقد أن الإقطاع كان منظمة للقتال فقط؛ لكنه كان شيئا أكثر من هذا. It came to be an organization for governing the land as well. 它|来|||||||||| |||||||governar|||| لقد أصبحت منظمة لحكم الأرض أيضًا. The power of the kings became so weak that the feudal nobles were able finally to take into their own hands most things that the head of the state ought to have done. ||||||||||||||||掌握|||||||||||||||| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||should have||| ||||||||||feudais|||||||||||||||||||||| أصبحت سلطة الملوك ضعيفة للغاية لدرجة أن النبلاء الإقطاعيين تمكنوا أخيرًا من تولي أيديهم معظم الأشياء التي كان ينبغي على رئيس الدولة القيام بها. O poder dos reis tornou-se tão fraco que os nobres feudais puderam finalmente tomar nas suas próprias mãos a maior parte das coisas que o chefe do Estado deveria fazer. In this way it came about that the feudal lords had the right to make war, coin money, make laws, and hold courts in their fiefs. |||它|来了||||||||||制定||||||||法庭|||封地 ||||||||||||||||||||||judicial assemblies|||landed estates |||||||||||||||||||||||||fiefs |||||||||senhores feudais||||||||||||||||feudos وبهذه الطريقة أصبح للإقطاعيين الحق في شن الحرب، وسك النقود، وسن القوانين، وإقامة المحاكم في إقطاعياتهم. Desta forma, os senhores feudais passaram a ter o direito de fazer a guerra, cunhar moeda, fazer leis e manter tribunais nos seus feudos. Таким образом, феодалы получили право вести войну, чеканить деньги, издавать законы и вершить суд в своих вотчинах. Sometimes they had their own gallows on which to hang offenders. |||||绞刑架||||| |||||execution structure|||||lawbreakers |||||絞首台||||| |||||виселиця|||||offenders |||||||||pendurar|os infratores في بعض الأحيان كان لديهم مشنقة خاصة بهم لشنق المجرمين. The power that ought to have been in the hands of the head of the state was thus split up into many bits, and each of these great lords had part of it. ||||||||||||||||||divided||||small parts|||||||||| ||||||||||||||||||||||pedaços||||||senhores|||| وهكذا تم تقسيم السلطة التي كان ينبغي أن تكون في يد رئيس الدولة إلى أجزاء كثيرة، وكان لكل من هؤلاء اللوردات العظماء جزء منها.

The growth of the feudal system was going on everywhere in Western Europe from about the eighth to the eleventh centuries. |||||||进行||||||||||||| |development|||medieval hierarchical structure|||||||||||||||11th century| ||||feudalismo|||||||||||||||| كان نمو النظام الإقطاعي مستمرًا في كل مكان في أوروبا الغربية منذ القرن الثامن إلى القرن الحادي عشر تقريبًا. It grew slowly, but it grew surely; for in the weakened condition of the state it was the form of organization that best met the needs of the people. ||||||||||||||||||||||最佳|||||| ||||||||||debilitada|||||||||||||||||| لقد نما ببطء، لكنه نما بشكل مؤكد؛ لأنه في حالة ضعف الدولة كان شكل التنظيم هو الذي يلبي احتياجات الناس على أفضل وجه. So everywhere,—in Spain, in France, in England, in Germany, and in Italy—we find the feudal castles arising; and men everywhere gave up their free land, received it back as fiefs, and became the vassals of lords above them. |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||vassalos||senhores|| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||феоди|||||||| وهكذا في كل مكان، في أسبانيا، وفرنسا، وإنجلترا، وألمانيا، وإيطاليا، نجد القلاع الإقطاعية تنشأ؛ وتخلى الناس في كل مكان عن أراضيهم المجانية، واستعادوها إقطاعيات، وأصبحوا تابعين للأسياد فوقهم.

The existence of feudalism is one of the most important facts about the Middle Ages. |||||||||重要的||||| |||o feudalismo||||||||||| يعد وجود الإقطاع من أهم الحقائق عن العصور الوسطى. It is this which makes the government of that period so different from the governments of Greece and Rome, and also from the governments of to-day. 它||这|||||||||||||||||||||||| وهذا ما يجعل حكومة تلك الفترة مختلفة تمامًا عن حكومتي اليونان وروما، وكذلك عن حكومات اليوم. Feudalism, moreover, led to other important changes. medieval social system|||||| علاوة على ذلك، أدى الإقطاع إلى تغييرات مهمة أخرى. In the Church it made the abbots and bishops the vassals of the kings and nobles for the land which the Church held; and since vassals owed military service, the bishops and abbots often became more like feudal warriors than mild and holy servants of Christ. ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||变成||||||||||| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||were obligated to||||||||||||||gentle and pious||||| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||м'які||||| ||||||os abades|||||||||||||||||||vassalos|devem serviço||||||||||||||tementes||||| وفي الكنيسة جعلت رؤساء الأديرة والأساقفة تابعين للملوك والنبلاء على الأرض التي كانت تسيطر عليها الكنيسة؛ وبما أن الأتباع يستحقون الخدمة العسكرية، فإن الأساقفة ورؤساء الأديرة أصبحوا في كثير من الأحيان أشبه بالمحاربين الإقطاعيين أكثر من كونهم خدام المسيح اللطيفين والمقدسين. Because the chief business of vassals and lords was fighting, much attention was paid to arms and armor, and to training for war. |||事务||||||||||||||||对||| |||||os vassalos||senhores||||||||armas||armas e armaduras||||| ولأن العمل الرئيسي للأتباع والأباطرة كان القتال، فقد تم إيلاء الكثير من الاهتمام للأسلحة والدروع، والتدريب على الحرب. In this way arose the wonderful coats of mail and suits of armor of the Middle Ages; in this way also arose the long training which one had to go through to become a knight, and the exciting "tournaments" in which the knights tried their skill against one another. ||||||||盔甲||||||||||||||||||一个|||||||||||||||||尝试||||| ||||||protective garments||chainmail||sets of armor||||||||||||||rigorous preparation||||||||||||||knightly competitions|||||||||| ||||||cotas de malha||cota de malha||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||torneios|||||||||| وبهذه الطريقة ظهرت المعاطف الرائعة من الدرع والبدلات المدرعة في العصور الوسطى؛ وبهذه الطريقة أيضًا نشأ التدريب الطويل الذي كان على المرء أن يمر به ليصبح فارسًا، و"البطولات" المثيرة التي يجرب فيها الفرسان مهاراتهم ضد بعضهم البعض. In another chapter is an account of The Life of the Castle; we tell you of these things here only that you may see how truly we may say of this period, that it was indeed the Feudal Age, as it is sometimes called. ||||一个|||这个||||||告诉||的|||这里||||||如何||||||||||||||||||| ||section|||description|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||feudalismo|||||| وفي فصل آخر وصف لحياة القلعة. نخبرك بهذه الأشياء هنا فقط لكي ترى مدى صدق ما يمكن أن نقوله عن هذه الفترة، إنها كانت بالفعل العصر الإقطاعي، كما يطلق عليه أحيانًا. Noutro capítulo, é feita uma descrição da vida do castelo; contamos estas coisas aqui apenas para que vejam como é verdade que podemos dizer deste período, que foi de facto a Idade Feudal, como por vezes é chamada. 在另一章中有关于城堡生活的叙述;我们在这里告诉您这些事情,仅仅是为了让您看到我们可以多么真实地说这个时期确实是封建时代,正如它有时被称为的那样。 Especially is this true of the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries. Particularly|||||||||| |||||||décima segunda||| وينطبق هذا بشكل خاص على القرون الحادي عشر والثاني عشر والثالث عشر. 尤其是在十一世纪、十二世纪和十三世纪,这一点尤其真实。 It is in those centuries preeminently that we find feudalism grown into a complete system, and ruling the whole life of the lands which the German conquerors had won from the Roman Empire. |||||卓越地||||||||||||||||||||||||||| |||||chiefly||||||||||||||||||||||||||| |||||特に||||||||||||||||||||||||||| |||||preeminent||||||||||||||||||||||||||| |||||sobretudo||||feudalismo|||||||||||||||||os conquistadores|||||| وفي تلك القرون بالذات نجد الإقطاع قد تطور إلى نظام كامل، ويحكم الحياة الكاملة للأراضي التي انتزعها الغزاة الألمان من الإمبراطورية الرومانية. Именно в эти века мы видим, что феодализм превратился в законченную систему и управлял всей жизнью земель, отвоеванных германскими завоевателями у Римской империи. 正是在这些世纪,我们明显发现封建主义已经成长为一个完整的系统,统治着德国征服者从罗马帝国获得的土地上的整个生活。