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Crash Course European History, Commerce, Agriculture, and Slavery: Crash Course European History #8 (1)

Commerce, Agriculture, and Slavery: Crash Course European History #8 (1)

Hi I'm John Green and this is Crash Course European History.

So, last time, we were focusing on queens and kings and rivalries.Today we're gonna

take a break from struggles over religion and political disputes that made for so much

violence and look instead at some basics of everyday life--the foods people ate centuries

ago, the kinds of things people bought and sold, and changes in the kinds of lives people

could hope to live.

I know developments in agriculture and commerce may seem like sidelines to the main political

show—I mean, there's a reason it's called Game of Thrones and not like, Game of Slightly

Improved Seed Quality--but I'd argue that history is about how people lived, and what

we might learn from their lives.

And if you think about our lives today, our leaders are important.

Our forms of government are important.

But as Miroslav Volf said, Politics touches everything, but politics isn't everything.

On a day-to-day basis, our lives are also shaped by the kinds of goods and services

available to us, and our professional and personal opportunities.

Whether you go to school, whether you get enough to eat, the kinds of freedom you do

and do not enjoy... those are the big questions we're exploring today.

INTRO The citizens of many European nations today

have long life expectancies, and a top standard of living.

Europe also comprises the largest developed economic market place and a major region of

trade.

But in 1500, that was hardly the case.

In the early fourteenth century a major famine erupted, with further famines across the centuries.

We've talked about the Black Death.

Trade was local and regulated by guilds—that is, by organizations of individual artisans

and traders that determined the number and type of goods that could be produced and marketed.

In the late middle ages Europe was a subsistence economy, with little if any agricultural surplus.

If princes could satisfy their appetite for food and drink on a regular and reliable basis,

they were virtually alone in experiencing a consistently happy and full stomach.

In 1500, Europe was not exceptional in life expectancy or in many other measures of well-being.

But in the early modern period, roughly between 1500 and 1750 the situation gradually improved,.

And I know that seems impossible, given all the religious strife, and wars, and massacres

we've discussed in this series so far.

But during this period, population actually rose;

In Britain, for instance, the population almost doubled between 1700 and 1800.

Historians attribute this rise to developments in agriculture, sometimes called an agricultural

revolution that unfolded alongside all that warfare.

And there was also a growth in commerce, often called a commercial revolution, and of course,

the Columbian exchange, which made new nutritious foods--from potatoes to corn--available to

Europeans.

But the agricultural revolution was also driven by innovation that dramatically boosted agricultural

yields in Europe between 1500 and 1800.

Let's go to the Thought Bubble.

For starters, it was discovered that planting certain crops, like turnip and clover, could

replenish soil, which was one example of crop rotation--farmers would plant one crop in

a field one year, and then another the next year, rotating 2 or at times three crops to

add nutrients to the soil. and the great thing about crop rotation is

that it decreased the amount of farmland that needed to remain fallow each year--that is,

unplanted.

Secondly, with the Dutch pioneering some advances, land reclamation occurred across Europe.

This entailed converting marshes and other previously unusable land into farmland.

and Third, common lands were enclosed.

Enclosure occurred when wealthier farmers bought up or simply took common land (land

that had been open to community use).

Private farms were able to innovate faster than communities,

which required consensus in group decision-making.

And fourth, there were new inventions such as the seed drill and a plow that could be

drawn by two instead of six or eight farm animals.

The new plow cut down on expenses and the seed drill made planting more accurate with

less wasted seed.

Both of these new tools, by the way, copied Chinese inventions.

But while enclosure and more mechanized farming practices did mean more overall food, and

therefore more overall wealth, not everyone benefited, because a decrease in common land

meant that fewer people had direct access to land for their own use.

Thanks, Thought Bubble.

So one example of all these innovations can be seen in the life of [[TV: Elizabeth of

Sutherland]] Elizabeth, Countess of Sutherland, who inherited some 800,000 acres in Scotland.

Stan, hold on a second.

Is that a trout in her hair?

Is is a feather?

Was there some kind of hair fish trend at the time?

Let's move on from lighthearted hair fish jokes and talk about people being wrested

from their land.So, Elizabeth removed hundreds of tenants from her estate, then created unified

acreage for farming and raising sheep with the help of day laborers.

These landless workers were cheaper, and also unlike the tenant farmers who had lived on

the land previously, day laborers did not have longstanding claims to inhabit and work

the land, called “tenancy.”

The Countess was known for chasing villagers away from their land with her own hands, and

also for innovations that increased productivity even as Sutherland's former tenants became

homeless.

So more overall food, but on land controlled by fewer people.

So obviously, this Agricultural Revolution entailed massive social dislocation that included

the rise of poverty, migration of disenfranchised farmworkers to cities and also to other continents,

and even as overall agricultural production rose, some among the poor starved.

And this period of European history is still widely debated in part because ideas of private

property and inequality of wealth remain resonant today, but whether this modernization helped

or hurt humanity again depends on your perspective.

To some, it was fatal.

To many, it meant trauma and impoverishment as people were removed from lands their families

had farmed for generations.

But these changes also helped fuel greater overall food production, population growth,

larger cities, and more space for all kinds of specialized labor, from shoemaking to theater.

I mean, it's no coincidence that Shakespeare and Marlowe were writing as English agricultural

production started to increase.

Another ingredient in the rising population and overall output of food was the inflow

of novel plants from the Americas and other parts of the world.

Potatoes and maize, for example, were grown on the marginal land that was previously seen

as unfit for agriculture.

Farmers started experimenting with all the new crops, but especially with maize and potatoes

that could produce super-abundant...did the world just open?

Is there a potato in the center?

There's a lot of candidates for most important plant of the last 500 years, but I'm gonna

say it's the potato.

They contain lots of carbohydrates, and whatever micronutrients are.

You can turn them into both French fries and tater tots, the world's two most important

foods.

But most importantly, you don't need great soil to have great potatoes.

Just ask Idaho!

[[TV: Rice]] In addition to the transfer of crops, knowledge about agriculture was transferred

from Africa and the Americas to Europe.

Women in both the Americas and Africa had made their regions food-rich, as European

traders and invaders testified, and their knowledge of crops and irrigation techniques

allowed, for instance, rice to be grown in much larger quantities in European colonies.

[[TV: Slave Trade]] Much of what Europeans learned about agriculture from Africans came

from enslaved women agriculturalists.

Slavery has existed for millennia, but slaves have experienced very different lives depending

on culture, and religion, and occupation, and gender.

[[TV: Slaves at Work]] Before 1650, the Atlantic slave ships took an annual total of 7,500

Africans to the Western Hemisphere—and that number was comparable to other slave routes,

such as the one in South Asia or the Ottoman Empire.

The vast majority went to Mexico and South America.

European ships transported other slaves from the Indian Ocean across the Pacific, many

of them to Mexico.

But, beginning in the late seventeenth century, there was a massive upsurge in African slavery

that sought to replace the labor of the native American populations that had been utterly

devastated by disease and warfare.

In particular, slave labor was used to fill the world's increasing demand for commodities

and consumer goods.

Europeans came to depend on sugar, and tobacco, and coffee, and tea--all of which was produced

primarily via forced labor.

[[TV: Mansa Musa]] And racism developed alongside the growth of the African slave trade.

At first, Europeans were in awe of African wealth in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries,

as it motivated their first contacts.

They craved African gold and found African men and women stately--“intelligent and

rich,” as one Portuguese trader wrote.

However, greed for profit took over and as the indigenous Amerindian population declined,

the desire for slaves grew, and to justify slavery, European descriptions of Africans

became contemptuous and dehumanizing.

[[TV: Slave Ship]] As dehumanization progressed, Europeans treated Africans as morally and

intellectually inferior, and used those incorrect constructions to justify their horrendous

treatment of Africans, packing them into slave ships and subjecting them to the lethal middle

passage across the Atlantic.

African kings and independent African traders fed the rising demand for slaves.

In those days of state consolidation African rulers sought funds for weaponry, which Europeans

provided in exchange for slaves.

More advanced weaponry then allowed leaders to capture additional people to sell to European

slavers for yet more weapons.

European slavers mostly operated along the West African coast, while Arabs took slaves

from East Africa to sell to India or into the Middle Eastern markets.

The Saharan slave trade went northward, transporting many women slaves to serve as domestics and

as sex workers.

But the European slave was by far the largest, and the dehumanizing racism that has endured

to this day.

[[TV: Slaves at Work]] In the eighteenth century, one million slaves worked in the sugar industry

and diamond and gold mines of Brazil.

These industries were tremendously lucrative, and in that sense, slavery both produced and

was a product of growing European wealth.

The conditions of slavery were truly dire: Torture, beatings, overwork, and malnutrition

were routine.

And because the system itself did not treat them as humans, enslaved people had very little

recourse, and there was always the knowledge that you could be separated from your children,

from your family, at any time, because you were treated legally and practically as property.

The slave trade itself was part of a web of interactions that is still being understood.

Historians used to talk of the triangle trade: shippers took small iron goods from Britain

to Africa, trading them for slaves; and then shippers dropped off the slaves who survived

the passage in Brazil or the Caribbean, and then filled their holds with local sugar or

molasses to take back to England.

But while there was a triangle, there were also many other shapes.

West African rulers and consumers wanted cowrie shells and Indian textiles as payment for

slaves.

These products took a much more circuitous route than a simple triangle.

Cowrie shells, for example, were picked up from merchants along the Pacific Ocean or

South Asian coasts, then “cured” and processed in Sri Lanka, then shipped again.

With slaves coming to the New World across the Pacific and commodities to pay for them

flowing in multiple directions, the slave trade into the Americas was part of a global,

not just triangular, market.

In fact, multidirectional trade in many goods increased in diversity and quantity.

In the seventeenth century literally millions of pieces of porcelain went in Portuguese

ships to Dutch and other European ports.

And to get funds to buy that porcelain, European shippers did a lot of local coastline shipping,

stopping at ports around the Indian Ocean or at Chinese depots in the Philippines.

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Commerce, Agriculture, and Slavery: Crash Course European History #8 (1) Comercio, agricultura y esclavitud: Curso acelerado de Historia Europea #8 (1) Commerce, agriculture et esclavage : cours accéléré d'histoire européenne n°8 (1) Commercio, agricoltura e schiavitù: Corso accelerato di storia europea #8 (1) 商業、農業、奴隷制度:クラッシュコース ヨーロッパ史 第8回 (1) Comércio, agricultura e escravatura: Curso Rápido de História Europeia #8 (1) Ticaret, Tarım ve Kölelik: Crash Course Avrupa Tarihi #8 (1) Торгівля, сільське господарство та рабство: Прискорений курс європейської історії #8 (1) 商业、农业和奴隶制:欧洲历史速成课程#8(1) 商業、農業與奴隸制:歐洲歷史速成課程 #8 (1)

Hi I'm John Green and this is Crash Course European History.

So, last time, we were focusing on queens and kings and rivalries.Today we're gonna Da última vez, estávamos a falar de rainhas, reis e rivalidades.

take a break from struggles over religion and political disputes that made for so much |||||||||争端||||| fazer uma pausa nas lutas religiosas e nas disputas políticas que tanto contribuíram para

violence and look instead at some basics of everyday life--the foods people ate centuries violência e olhar, em vez disso, para alguns princípios básicos da vida quotidiana - os alimentos que as pessoas comiam há séculos

ago, the kinds of things people bought and sold, and changes in the kinds of lives people Há alguns anos atrás, o tipo de coisas que as pessoas compravam e vendiam, e as mudanças no tipo de vida das pessoas

could hope to live. poderia ter esperança de viver.

I know developments in agriculture and commerce may seem like sidelines to the main political ||||||||||peripheral issues|||| 農業や商業の発展が、主要な政治の傍流に見えるかもしれないことは承知している。 Sei que os desenvolvimentos na agricultura e no comércio podem parecer secundários em relação à política principal

show—I mean, there's a reason it's called Game of Thrones and not like, Game of Slightly ||||||||||Thrones|||||| つまり、『ゲーム・オブ・スローンズ』と呼ばれていて、『ゲーム・オブ・スライトリー』と呼ばれていないのには理由があるんだ。 O programa - quer dizer, há uma razão para se chamar Game of Thrones e não Game of Slightly

Improved Seed Quality--but I'd argue that history is about how people lived, and what 種子の品質向上--しかし、私は歴史とは人々がどのように生きてきたか、そしてどのようなものであったかについて語るものだと主張したい。 Melhoria da qualidade das sementes - mas eu diria que a história é sobre como as pessoas viviam, e o que

we might learn from their lives. podemos aprender com as suas vidas.

And if you think about our lives today, our leaders are important. そして、今日の私たちの生活について考えるなら、リーダーは重要だ。 E se pensarmos nas nossas vidas actuais, os nossos líderes são importantes.

Our forms of government are important. As nossas formas de governo são importantes.

But as Miroslav Volf said, Politics touches everything, but politics isn't everything. |||Miroslav Volf|||||||| しかし、ミロスラフ・ヴォルフが言ったように、政治はすべてに触れるが、政治がすべてではない。 Mas, como disse Miroslav Volf, a política toca em tudo, mas a política não é tudo.

On a day-to-day basis, our lives are also shaped by the kinds of goods and services No dia a dia, as nossas vidas também são moldadas pelos tipos de bens e serviços

available to us, and our professional and personal opportunities. disponíveis, e as nossas oportunidades profissionais e pessoais.

Whether you go to school, whether you get enough to eat, the kinds of freedom you do Se vai à escola, se come o suficiente, o tipo de liberdade que tem

and do not enjoy... those are the big questions we're exploring today. e não desfrutar... estas são as grandes questões que estamos a explorar hoje.

INTRO The citizens of many European nations today INTRO Os cidadãos de muitas nações europeias são hoje

have long life expectancies, and a top standard of living. |||expectancies|||||| têm uma esperança de vida longa e um nível de vida elevado.

Europe also comprises the largest developed economic market place and a major region of ヨーロッパはまた、最大の先進国経済市場であり、経済発展の主要地域でもある。 A Europa é também o maior mercado económico desenvolvido e uma importante região de

trade. comércio.

But in 1500, that was hardly the case. しかし、1500年当時はそうではなかった。 Mas, em 1500, não era esse o caso.

In the early fourteenth century a major famine erupted, with further famines across the centuries. |||||||famine|爆发|||famine events||| 14世紀初頭には大飢饉が発生し、その後も数世紀にわたって飢饉が続いた。 No início do século XIV, surgiu uma grande fome, que se prolongou ao longo dos séculos.

We've talked about the Black Death. Já falámos sobre a Peste Negra.

Trade was local and regulated by guilds—that is, by organizations of individual artisans ||||||工会|||||||工匠 貿易は地域的なもので、ギルド、つまり個々の職人の組織によって規制されていた。 O comércio era local e regulado por guildas, ou seja, por organizações de artesãos individuais

and traders that determined the number and type of goods that could be produced and marketed. そして、生産と販売が可能な商品の数と種類を決定する商人たち。 e comerciantes que determinaram o número e o tipo de bens que podiam ser produzidos e comercializados.

In the late middle ages Europe was a subsistence economy, with little if any agricultural surplus. ||||||||生存经济|||||||过剩 中世後期のヨーロッパは自給自足の経済で、農業の余剰はほとんどなかった。 No final da Idade Média, a Europa era uma economia de subsistência, com poucos ou nenhuns excedentes agrícolas.

If princes could satisfy their appetite for food and drink on a regular and reliable basis, |||||desire|||||||||| もし王子たちが定期的に、確実に飲食の欲求を満たすことができれば、 Se os príncipes pudessem satisfazer o seu apetite por comida e bebida de forma regular e fiável,

they were virtually alone in experiencing a consistently happy and full stomach. |||||||regularly|||| 彼らは、常に幸せで満腹であることを経験するのは、事実上、彼らだけだった。 eram praticamente os únicos a ter um estômago sempre feliz e cheio.

In 1500, Europe was not exceptional in life expectancy or in many other measures of well-being. Em 1500, a Europa não era excecional em termos de esperança de vida ou de muitas outras medidas de bem-estar.

But in the early modern period, roughly between 1500 and 1750 the situation gradually improved,. Mas no início do período moderno, aproximadamente entre 1500 e 1750, a situação melhorou gradualmente.

And I know that seems impossible, given all the religious strife, and wars, and massacres ||||||||||conflict||||大屠杀 宗教的な争いや戦争、虐殺を考えれば、そんなことは不可能に思えるだろうが......。 E eu sei que isso parece impossível, tendo em conta todos os conflitos religiosos, guerras e massacres

we've discussed in this series so far. que discutimos nesta série até agora.

But during this period, population actually rose; Mas durante este período, a população aumentou efetivamente;

In Britain, for instance, the population almost doubled between 1700 and 1800. Na Grã-Bretanha, por exemplo, a população quase duplicou entre 1700 e 1800.

Historians attribute this rise to developments in agriculture, sometimes called an agricultural |attribute|||||||||| Os historiadores atribuem esta ascensão à evolução da agricultura, por vezes designada por "agricultura

revolution that unfolded alongside all that warfare. 戦乱と並行して展開された革命。 revolução que se desenrolou a par de toda essa guerra.

And there was also a growth in commerce, often called a commercial revolution, and of course, Houve também um crescimento do comércio, muitas vezes chamado de revolução comercial, e, claro,

the Columbian exchange, which made new nutritious foods--from potatoes to corn--available to o intercâmbio colombiano, que tornou novos alimentos nutritivos - de batatas a milho - disponíveis para

Europeans.

But the agricultural revolution was also driven by innovation that dramatically boosted agricultural |||||||||||підвищила продуктивність| Mas a revolução agrícola também foi impulsionada pela inovação que aumentou drasticamente a produtividade agrícola.

yields in Europe between 1500 and 1800. врожайність|||| 1500年から1800年にかけてのヨーロッパにおける収穫量。 na Europa entre 1500 e 1800.

Let's go to the Thought Bubble. Vamos para o balão de pensamento.

For starters, it was discovered that planting certain crops, like turnip and clover, could |首先|||||||||turnip||| ||||||||сільськогосподарські культури||ріпа||конюшина| 手始めに、カブやクローバーのような特定の作物を植えることで、次のような効果が得られることが発見された。 Para começar, descobriu-se que a plantação de certas culturas, como o nabo e o trevo, podia

replenish soil, which was one example of crop rotation--farmers would plant one crop in replenish||||||||crop rotation|||||| поповнити ґрунт|||||||урожай||||||| reabastecer o solo, que era um exemplo de rotação de culturas - os agricultores plantavam uma cultura em

a field one year, and then another the next year, rotating 2 or at times three crops to um campo num ano e outro no ano seguinte, alternando 2 ou, por vezes, três culturas para

add nutrients to the soil. and the great thing about crop rotation is e o melhor da rotação de culturas é que

that it decreased the amount of farmland that needed to remain fallow each year--that is, |||||||||||休耕|||| |||||||||||незасіяним|||| つまり、毎年休耕地を残す必要がある農地の量を減らすことができたのだ、 que diminuiu a quantidade de terras agrícolas que precisavam de ficar em pousio todos os anos - isto é,

unplanted. not planted 植えていない。 não plantado.

Secondly, with the Dutch pioneering some advances, land reclamation occurred across Europe. ||||pioneering efforts||||土地开垦||| ||||||досягнення||осушення земель||| 第二に、オランダが先駆的な進歩を遂げたことで、ヨーロッパ全土で干拓が行われた。 Em segundo lugar, com os holandeses a serem pioneiros em alguns avanços, a recuperação de terras ocorreu em toda a Europa.

This entailed converting marshes and other previously unusable land into farmland. |involved||湿地||||||| |||болота||||||| これには、沼地やその他の以前は使えなかった土地を農地に変えることが必要だった。 Isto implicou a conversão de pântanos e outras terras anteriormente inutilizáveis em terras agrícolas.

and Third, common lands were enclosed. |||||огороджені そして第三に、共有地が封鎖された。 e Terceiro, as terras comuns foram cercadas.

Enclosure occurred when wealthier farmers bought up or simply took common land (land |||багатші фермери||||||||| 囲い込みは、裕福な農民が共有地(土地)を買い取ったり、単に奪い取ったりすることで起こった。 O cercamento ocorreu quando os agricultores mais ricos compraram ou simplesmente tomaram terras comuns (terras

that had been open to community use). que tinha sido aberto à utilização comunitária).

Private farms were able to innovate faster than communities, |||||develop new ideas||| 民間農場は地域社会よりも早くイノベーションを起こすことができた、 As explorações agrícolas privadas foram capazes de inovar mais rapidamente do que as comunidades,

which required consensus in group decision-making. ||agreement|||| ||консенсус|||| que exigia consenso na tomada de decisões em grupo.

And fourth, there were new inventions such as the seed drill and a plow that could be ||||||||||сівалка|||плуг||| 第四に、種まきドリルや耕運機のような新しい発明があった。 E, em quarto lugar, houve novas invenções, como o semeador e um arado que podia ser

drawn by two instead of six or eight farm animals. desenhado por dois em vez de seis ou oito animais de quinta.

The new plow cut down on expenses and the seed drill made planting more accurate with O novo arado reduziu as despesas e o semeador tornou a plantação mais precisa com

less wasted seed. menos desperdício de sementes.

Both of these new tools, by the way, copied Chinese inventions. Ambos os novos instrumentos, aliás, copiavam invenções chinesas.

But while enclosure and more mechanized farming practices did mean more overall food, and ||enclosure one|||mechanized|||||||| しかし、囲い込みや機械化された農法は、食料全体の増加を意味した。 Mas, embora o cercamento e as práticas agrícolas mais mecanizadas significassem mais alimentos em geral, e

therefore more overall wealth, not everyone benefited, because a decrease in common land |||||||||зменшення||| e, por conseguinte, mais riqueza global, nem todos beneficiaram, porque a diminuição das terras comuns

meant that fewer people had direct access to land for their own use. ||менше|||||||||| significava que menos pessoas tinham acesso direto à terra para seu próprio uso.

Thanks, Thought Bubble.

So one example of all these innovations can be seen in the life of [[TV: Elizabeth of Assim, um exemplo de todas estas inovações pode ser visto na vida de [[TV: Isabel de

Sutherland]] Elizabeth, Countess of Sutherland, who inherited some 800,000 acres in Scotland. ||Countess||||继承|||| ||||||успадкувала|||| サザーランド]スコットランドに約80万エーカーの土地を相続したサザーランド伯爵夫人エリザベス。 Sutherland]] Elizabeth, Condessa de Sutherland, que herdou cerca de 800.000 acres na Escócia.

Stan, hold on a second.

Is that a trout in her hair? |||trout||| |||форель||| Aquilo é uma truta no cabelo dela?

Is is a feather? |||Це перо? É uma pena?

Was there some kind of hair fish trend at the time? Existia algum tipo de tendência de peixes de cabelo na altura?

Let's move on from lighthearted hair fish jokes and talk about people being wrested ||||playful|||||||||wrested away ||||безтурботний|||||||||відірвані від 軽はずみなヘアフィッシュ・ジョークから脱却し、レスリングされる人々について語ろう。 Vamos deixar as piadas sobre peixes de cabelo para trás e falar sobre pessoas que estão a ser lutadas

from their land.So, Elizabeth removed hundreds of tenants from her estate, then created unified ||||||||tenants|||property||| ||||||||орендарів|||маєток||| そこでエリザベスは、何百人もの借地人を自分の土地から追い出し、統一的な土地を造った。 Assim, Isabel retirou centenas de inquilinos da sua propriedade e, em seguida, criou uma

acreage for farming and raising sheep with the help of day laborers. 土地面积||||||||||| площа землі||||||||||| de terra para a agricultura e a criação de ovelhas com a ajuda de trabalhadores diaristas.

These landless workers were cheaper, and also unlike the tenant farmers who had lived on |||||||||租户||||| |безземельні||||||||орендарі||||| Estes trabalhadores sem terra eram mais baratos e, ao contrário dos rendeiros que viviam de

the land previously, day laborers did not have longstanding claims to inhabit and work |||||||||||населяти|| 以前は、日雇い労働者は、その土地に住み、働くという長年の権利を有していなかった。 os trabalhadores diaristas não tinham reivindicações de longa data para habitar e trabalhar

the land, called “tenancy.” |||租赁权 |||оренда землі 土地は "借地権 "と呼ばれる。 a terra, chamada "tenancy".

The Countess was known for chasing villagers away from their land with her own hands, and |Countess||||chasing away|||||||||| |||||проганяти|||||||||| 伯爵夫人は、自らの手で村人を土地から追い払うことで知られていた。 A Condessa era conhecida por expulsar os aldeões das suas terras com as suas próprias mãos, e

also for innovations that increased productivity even as Sutherland's former tenants became また、サザランドの旧テナントが生産性を向上させる技術革新にも貢献した。 também por inovações que aumentaram a produtividade, mesmo quando os antigos inquilinos da Sutherland se tornaram

homeless. sem casa.

So more overall food, but on land controlled by fewer people. Portanto, mais alimentos em geral, mas em terras controladas por menos pessoas.

So obviously, this Agricultural Revolution entailed massive social dislocation that included |||||involved|||disruption|| ||||||||соціальні зміни|| つまり、この農業革命には、大規模な社会的混乱が含まれていたのである。 É evidente que esta revolução agrícola implicou uma deslocação social maciça que incluiu

the rise of poverty, migration of disenfranchised farmworkers to cities and also to other continents, ||||||disenfranchised|农场工人||||||| |||злидні|||позбавлені прав|||||||| o aumento da pobreza, a migração de trabalhadores agrícolas sem direitos para as cidades e também para outros continentes,

and even as overall agricultural production rose, some among the poor starved. |||||||||||голодували 農業生産が全体的に増加しても、貧しい人々の中には飢餓に苦しむ者もいた。 e mesmo quando a produção agrícola global aumentou, alguns dos pobres passaram fome.

And this period of European history is still widely debated in part because ideas of private ||||||||широко||||||| そして、ヨーロッパ史のこの時代は、私的なものの考え方から、今でも広く議論されている。 E este período da história europeia continua a ser amplamente debatido, em parte porque as ideias de

property and inequality of wealth remain resonant today, but whether this modernization helped |||||||||||modernization process| ||||||резонують сьогодні|||||| 財産と富の不平等は今日も響いているが、この近代化が役に立ったかどうか。 propriedade e a desigualdade de riqueza permanecem actuais, mas se esta modernização ajudou

or hurt humanity again depends on your perspective. 人類を傷つけるかどうかは、あなたの考え方次第だ。 ou ferir a humanidade, mais uma vez depende da sua perspetiva.

To some, it was fatal. ||||致命的 Para alguns, foi fatal.

To many, it meant trauma and impoverishment as people were removed from lands their families Para muitos, significou trauma e empobrecimento, uma vez que as pessoas foram retiradas das terras das suas famílias

had farmed for generations. 代々農業を営んできた。 cultivados há gerações.

But these changes also helped fuel greater overall food production, population growth, |||||підживлювати|||||| しかし、このような変化は、全体的な食糧生産と人口増加を促進することにもつながった、 Mas estas alterações também contribuíram para o aumento da produção alimentar global e para o crescimento da população,

larger cities, and more space for all kinds of specialized labor, from shoemaking to theater. ||||||||||||shoemaking|| ||||||||||||виготовлення взуття||театр 都市が大きくなり、靴作りから演劇まで、あらゆる種類の専門的な労働のためのスペースが増えた。 cidades maiores, e mais espaço para todo o tipo de mão de obra especializada, desde o fabrico de sapatos ao teatro.

I mean, it's no coincidence that Shakespeare and Marlowe were writing as English agricultural ||||coincidence||||||||| ||||співпадіння||||||||| つまり、シェイクスピアやマーロウがイギリス農業として執筆していたのは偶然ではないのだ。 Não é por acaso que Shakespeare e Marlowe escreviam como agricultores ingleses

production started to increase. a produção começou a aumentar.

Another ingredient in the rising population and overall output of food was the inflow ||||||||випуск продукції|||||приплив 人口と食糧生産量の増加のもう一つの要因は、食糧の流入であった。 Outro fator que contribuiu para o aumento da população e da produção global de alimentos foi a entrada de

of novel plants from the Americas and other parts of the world. |нових рослин|||||||||| de novas plantas das Américas e de outras partes do mundo.

Potatoes and maize, for example, were grown on the marginal land that was previously seen ||corn|||||||marginal||||| |||||||||маргінальні землі||||| A batata e o milho, por exemplo, foram cultivados nas terras marginais que anteriormente eram vistas como

as unfit for agriculture. |непридатний для сільського господарства|| como impróprias para a agricultura.

Farmers started experimenting with all the new crops, but especially with maize and potatoes Os agricultores começaram a experimentar todas as novas culturas, mas sobretudo o milho e a batata

that could produce super-abundant...did the world just open? ||||super-abundant||||| |||надзвичайно|||||| 超豊富な......世界は今、開かれたのだろうか? que poderia produzir super-abundância... o mundo acabou de se abrir?

Is there a potato in the center? Há uma batata no centro?

There's a lot of candidates for most important plant of the last 500 years, but I'm gonna Há muitos candidatos para a planta mais importante dos últimos 500 anos, mas eu vou

say it's the potato.

They contain lots of carbohydrates, and whatever micronutrients are. |містять||||||мікроелементи| Contêm muitos hidratos de carbono e quaisquer que sejam os micronutrientes.

You can turn them into both French fries and tater tots, the world's two most important |||||||||potato|土豆饼||||| |||||||||картопляні крокети|||||| フライドポテトにもテイタートッツにもなる。 Pode transformá-las em batatas fritas e tater tots, os dois alimentos mais importantes do mundo

foods.

But most importantly, you don't need great soil to have great potatoes. しかし最も重要なことは、素晴らしいジャガイモを作るのに素晴らしい土は必要ないということだ。 Mas o mais importante é que não é preciso ter um bom solo para ter boas batatas.

Just ask Idaho! Basta perguntar a Idaho!

[[TV: Rice]] In addition to the transfer of crops, knowledge about agriculture was transferred [[TV: Arroz]] Para além da transferência de culturas, foram transferidos conhecimentos sobre agricultura

from Africa and the Americas to Europe. de África e das Américas para a Europa.

Women in both the Americas and Africa had made their regions food-rich, as European アメリカ大陸とアフリカの女性たちは、ヨーロッパ人がその地域を豊かな食料地帯にしてきた。 As mulheres, tanto nas Américas como em África, tinham tornado as suas regiões ricas em alimentos, à medida que os europeus

traders and invaders testified, and their knowledge of crops and irrigation techniques ||||||||||зрошувальні техніки| 貿易商や侵略者が証言し、作物や灌漑技術に関する知識があった。 comerciantes e invasores testemunharam, e o seu conhecimento das culturas e das técnicas de irrigação

allowed, for instance, rice to be grown in much larger quantities in European colonies. これにより、例えば、ヨーロッパの植民地では米がはるかに大量に栽培されるようになった。 permitiram, por exemplo, que o arroz fosse cultivado em quantidades muito maiores nas colónias europeias.

[[TV: Slave Trade]] Much of what Europeans learned about agriculture from Africans came [[TV: Tráfico de Escravos]] Muito do que os europeus aprenderam sobre agricultura com os africanos veio

from enslaved women agriculturalists. |||农民 de mulheres escravizadas agricultoras.

Slavery has existed for millennia, but slaves have experienced very different lives depending ||||тисячоліттями|||||||| 奴隷制度は何千年もの間存在したが、奴隷が経験した人生は大きく異なっている。 A escravatura existe há milénios, mas os escravos tiveram vidas muito diferentes, dependendo

on culture, and religion, and occupation, and gender. 文化、宗教、職業、性別について。 na cultura, na religião, na profissão e no género.

[[TV: Slaves at Work]] Before 1650, the Atlantic slave ships took an annual total of 7,500 [[TV: Escravos no Trabalho]] Antes de 1650, os navios negreiros do Atlântico levavam um total anual de 7.500

Africans to the Western Hemisphere—and that number was comparable to other slave routes, その数は他の奴隷ルートと同程度であった、 Africanos para o hemisfério ocidental - e esse número era comparável ao de outras rotas de escravos,

such as the one in South Asia or the Ottoman Empire. 南アジアやオスマン帝国のような。 como a do Sul da Ásia ou a do Império Otomano.

The vast majority went to Mexico and South America. A grande maioria foi para o México e para a América do Sul.

European ships transported other slaves from the Indian Ocean across the Pacific, many Os navios europeus transportaram outros escravos do Oceano Índico para o Pacífico, muitos dos quais

of them to Mexico. deles para o México.

But, beginning in the late seventeenth century, there was a massive upsurge in African slavery |||||||||||increase||| |||||||||||сплеск||| Mas, a partir de finais do século XVII, verificou-se um aumento maciço da escravatura africana

that sought to replace the labor of the native American populations that had been utterly |attempted||||||||||||| |||замінити|||||||||||цілковито その結果、アメリカ先住民の労働力は完全に失われた。 que procurava substituir a mão de obra das populações nativas americanas que tinham sido totalmente

devastated by disease and warfare. devastados por doenças e guerras.

In particular, slave labor was used to fill the world's increasing demand for commodities |||||||||||||goods |||||||||||||товари Em particular, o trabalho escravo foi utilizado para satisfazer a crescente procura mundial de mercadorias

and consumer goods. |споживчі| と消費財。 e bens de consumo.

Europeans came to depend on sugar, and tobacco, and coffee, and tea--all of which was produced Os europeus passaram a depender do açúcar, do tabaco, do café e do chá - todos eles produzidos

primarily via forced labor. principalmente através de trabalho forçado.

[[TV: Mansa Musa]] And racism developed alongside the growth of the African slave trade. [Mansa Musa]] E o racismo desenvolveu-se a par do crescimento do tráfico de escravos africanos.

At first, Europeans were in awe of African wealth in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, 当初、ヨーロッパ人は15世紀から16世紀にかけてのアフリカの富に畏敬の念を抱いていた、 No início, os europeus ficaram maravilhados com a riqueza africana nos séculos XV e XVI,

as it motivated their first contacts. それが最初のコンタクトの動機となった。 pois motivou os seus primeiros contactos.

They craved African gold and found African men and women stately--“intelligent and ||||||||||dignified|| ||||||||||величні|| 彼らはアフリカの黄金を渇望し、アフリカの男女の風格を見出した。 Desejavam o ouro africano e achavam os homens e mulheres africanos imponentes - "inteligentes e

rich,” as one Portuguese trader wrote. rico", como escreveu um comerciante português.

However, greed for profit took over and as the indigenous Amerindian population declined, |greed||||||||||| |жадоба до прибутку|||||||||||зменшувалася しかし、利潤追求の欲に支配され、先住民であるアメリカインディアンの人口は減少していった、 No entanto, a ganância pelo lucro tomou conta e a população indígena ameríndia diminuiu,

the desire for slaves grew, and to justify slavery, European descriptions of Africans |бажання|||||||||описи африканців|| 奴隷への欲求が高まり、奴隷制を正当化するために、ヨーロッパ人はアフリカ人について次のように記述した。 o desejo de escravos aumentou e, para justificar a escravatura, as descrições europeias dos africanos

became contemptuous and dehumanizing. |轻蔑的||dehumanizing |зневажливим і нелюдським||знеособлюючим 侮蔑的で非人間的なものになった。 tornou-se desdenhoso e desumanizante.

[[TV: Slave Ship]] As dehumanization progressed, Europeans treated Africans as morally and ||||dehumanization||||||| [テレビ:奴隷船]]。非人間化が進むにつれ、ヨーロッパ人はアフリカ人を道徳的かつ [[TV: Navio Negreiro]] À medida que a desumanização progredia, os europeus tratavam os africanos como

intellectually inferior, and used those incorrect constructions to justify their horrendous intellectually|lesser|||||||||terrible |інтелектуально нижчий|||||конструкції||||жахливі дії 知的に劣り、自分たちの恐ろしい行為を正当化するために、そのような間違った構図を使った。 intelectualmente inferiores, e utilizaram essas construções incorrectas para justificar as suas

treatment of Africans, packing them into slave ships and subjecting them to the lethal middle アフリカ人を奴隷船に詰め込み、致命的な中間搾取を行った。 tratamento dos africanos, metendo-os em navios negreiros e sujeitando-os ao meio letal

passage across the Atlantic. 大西洋横断航路 passagem pelo Atlântico.

African kings and independent African traders fed the rising demand for slaves. ||||||задовольняли||||| アフリカの王や独立したアフリカ人商人たちは、奴隷の需要の高まりに食いついた。 Os reis africanos e os comerciantes africanos independentes alimentaram a procura crescente de escravos.

In those days of state consolidation African rulers sought funds for weaponry, which Europeans |||||state consolidation|||sought||||| |||||консолідація держави|||шукали||||| 国家統合の時代、アフリカの支配者たちは、ヨーロッパ人が求めていた武器のための資金を求めていた。 Naqueles tempos de consolidação do Estado, os governantes africanos procuravam fundos para armamento, que os europeus

provided in exchange for slaves. 奴隷と引き換えに提供された。 fornecidos em troca de escravos.

More advanced weaponry then allowed leaders to capture additional people to sell to European O armamento mais avançado permitiu então que os líderes capturassem mais pessoas para vender aos europeus

slavers for yet more weapons. escravos para obter ainda mais armas.

European slavers mostly operated along the West African coast, while Arabs took slaves ヨーロッパの奴隷商人は主に西アフリカ沿岸で活動し、アラブ人は奴隷を連れ去った。 Os traficantes de escravos europeus operavam sobretudo ao longo da costa ocidental africana, enquanto os árabes levavam escravos

from East Africa to sell to India or into the Middle Eastern markets. 東アフリカからインドや中東市場に売り込む。 da África Oriental para vender para a Índia ou para os mercados do Médio Oriente.

The Saharan slave trade went northward, transporting many women slaves to serve as domestics and |||||||||||||household workers| |||||на північ||||||||| サハラ砂漠の奴隷貿易は北上し、家政婦として多くの女性奴隷を輸送した。 O tráfico de escravos do Sara dirigiu-se para norte, transportando muitas mulheres escravas para servirem de domésticas e

as sex workers. como trabalhadores do sexo.

But the European slave was by far the largest, and the dehumanizing racism that has endured |||||||||||||||persisted |||||||||||||||переживала しかし、ヨーロッパ人の奴隷が圧倒的に多く、非人間的な人種差別は今も続いている。 Mas o escravo europeu era de longe o maior, e o racismo desumanizador que perdurou

to this day. até aos dias de hoje.

[[TV: Slaves at Work]] In the eighteenth century, one million slaves worked in the sugar industry [[TV: Escravos no Trabalho]] No século XVIII, um milhão de escravos trabalhavam na indústria açucareira

and diamond and gold mines of Brazil. e as minas de diamantes e ouro do Brasil.

These industries were tremendously lucrative, and in that sense, slavery both produced and |||extremely|profitable|||||||| |||||||||рабство||| Estas indústrias eram tremendamente lucrativas e, nesse sentido, a escravatura tanto produzia como

was a product of growing European wealth. foi um produto da crescente riqueza europeia.

The conditions of slavery were truly dire: Torture, beatings, overwork, and malnutrition ||||||extremely bad|Torture||||营养不良 ||||||жахливі||побиття|перевтома від роботи||недоїдання 奴隷の条件は本当に悲惨だった:拷問、殴打、過労、栄養失調 As condições de escravatura eram verdadeiramente terríveis: Tortura, espancamentos, excesso de trabalho e má nutrição

were routine.

And because the system itself did not treat them as humans, enslaved people had very little |||||||ставилася до|||||||| E como o próprio sistema não os tratava como seres humanos, as pessoas escravizadas tinham muito pouco

recourse, and there was always the knowledge that you could be separated from your children, option|||||||||||||| 子供と引き離されるかもしれないという不安は常にあった、 e havia sempre o conhecimento de que se podia ser separado dos filhos,

from your family, at any time, because you were treated legally and practically as property. ||||||||||законно|||| 法的にも実質的にも財産として扱われたからだ。 da sua família, em qualquer altura, porque era tratado legal e praticamente como propriedade.

The slave trade itself was part of a web of interactions that is still being understood. 奴隷貿易そのものが、いまだ解明されていない相互作用の網の目の一部だった。 O próprio tráfico de escravos fazia parte de uma teia de interacções que ainda está a ser compreendida.

Historians used to talk of the triangle trade: shippers took small iron goods from Britain ||||||triangle||traders|||||| |||||||||||залізні вироби||| 歴史家たちは三角貿易についてこう語っていた。 Os historiadores costumavam falar do comércio triangular: os carregadores levavam pequenas mercadorias de ferro da Grã-Bretanha

to Africa, trading them for slaves; and then shippers dropped off the slaves who survived ||||||||||||||вижили そして、荷送人は生き残った奴隷をアフリカに送り、奴隷と交換した。 para África, trocando-os por escravos; e depois os carregadores deixavam os escravos que sobreviviam

the passage in Brazil or the Caribbean, and then filled their holds with local sugar or |||||||||||трюми|||| ブラジルやカリブ海の航路を通過し、船倉に地元の砂糖や海産物を詰めた。 a passagem no Brasil ou nas Caraíbas, e depois enchiam os seus porões com açúcar local ou

molasses to take back to England. 糖蜜||||| патока||||| イギリスに持ち帰るための糖蜜である。 melaço para levar para Inglaterra.

But while there was a triangle, there were also many other shapes. しかし、三角形がある一方で、他の形もたくさんあった。 Mas embora houvesse um triângulo, havia também muitas outras formas.

West African rulers and consumers wanted cowrie shells and Indian textiles as payment for ||||||cowrie shells||||textiles||| ||||||каурі мушлі||||||| 西アフリカの支配者と消費者は、カウリーの貝殻とインドの織物を代金として求めた。 Os governantes e consumidores da África Ocidental queriam conchas de búzio e têxteis indianos como pagamento de

slaves. 奴隷

These products took a much more circuitous route than a simple triangle. ||||||indirect||||| ||||||обхідний шлях||||| これらの製品は、単純な三角形よりもはるかに回り道をした。 Estes produtos seguiram um caminho muito mais tortuoso do que um simples triângulo.

Cowrie shells, for example, were picked up from merchants along the Pacific Ocean or |||||підібрані|||торговці||||| As conchas de búzios, por exemplo, eram recolhidas em comerciantes ao longo do Oceano Pacífico ou

South Asian coasts, then “cured” and processed in Sri Lanka, then shipped again. |||||||||||відправлено| 南アジアの沿岸部で加工された後、スリランカで "熟成 "され、再び出荷される。 As costas do Sul da Ásia, depois "curadas" e transformadas no Sri Lanka, e depois enviadas novamente.

With slaves coming to the New World across the Pacific and commodities to pay for them 太平洋を渡って新大陸にやってきた奴隷と、その対価としての商品 Com os escravos a chegar ao Novo Mundo através do Pacífico e as mercadorias para os pagar

flowing in multiple directions, the slave trade into the Americas was part of a global, fluindo em múltiplas direcções, o tráfico de escravos para as Américas fazia parte de um sistema global,

not just triangular, market. e não apenas triangular, o mercado.

In fact, multidirectional trade in many goods increased in diversity and quantity. ||多向的||||||||| ||багатонаправлена||||||||| 実際、多くの財の多方向貿易は多様性と量を増した。 De facto, o comércio multidirecional de muitos bens aumentou em diversidade e quantidade.

In the seventeenth century literally millions of pieces of porcelain went in Portuguese 17世紀には、文字通り何百万個もの磁器がポルトガルに渡った。 No século XVII, literalmente milhões de peças de porcelana entraram em Portugal

ships to Dutch and other European ports. navios para portos holandeses e outros portos europeus.

And to get funds to buy that porcelain, European shippers did a lot of local coastline shipping, |||||||ceramic material||||||||| そして、その磁器を購入する資金を得るために、ヨーロッパの荷主たちは沿岸の地方発送を多く行った、 E para obter fundos para comprar essa porcelana, os armadores europeus faziam muitos transportes marítimos costeiros locais,

stopping at ports around the Indian Ocean or at Chinese depots in the Philippines. ||||||||||depot||| ||||||||||склади||| インド洋周辺の港やフィリピンの中国軍基地に寄港する。 parando em portos do Oceano Índico ou em depósitos chineses nas Filipinas.