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Crash Course European History, Expansion and Consequences: Crash Course European History #5 (1)

Expansion and Consequences: Crash Course European History #5 (1)

Hi I'm John Green and this is Crash Course European History.

So today we're going to continue looking at European expansion and its impact on the

world's humans.

Like, imagine learning that there are people in places you did not know existed, that they

eat foods you've never seen, that their world contains plant and animal species entirely

different from your world.

What people thought was one world turned out to be two, and the collision of those worlds

wrought devastation and opportunity on a truly mind-boggling scale.

And today, we're going to ask you to look at the consequences of European expansion,

and consider how those consequences change depending on where you find yourself.

INTRO Destruction from Iberian expansion was truly

extraordinary across the sixteenth century.

As Hernan Cortes commented: “We could not walk without treading on the bodies and heads

of dead Indians.”[i] Besides the slaughter of empire-building directly

inflicted by the invaders and their local allies, the ongoing progress of smallpox,

and measles, and other diseases that Europeans brought to the Americas completely overwhelmed

the healthcare systems of native Americans.

Many millions died.

Within a century, the population of native Americans had fallen perhaps by as much as

90%.

Throughout the Spanish Empire in the Americas the colonizers made use of existing political

structures that were already in place for collecting taxes and otherwise maintaining

order.

Even as the Spanish king appointed elite men from Spain as viceroys enforcing civil and

military rule over what had been the Incan Empire for instance, the Incan systems of

roads and communication networks facilitated Spanish domination.

It's also important to remember that because the Spanish had never before experienced almost

three- thousand-mile-long imperial operation, like the one the Incans had, the Spanish had

very little understanding of how to maintain its functions or to provide for its upkeep.

Much as the Spanish empire initially depended on brute force, sustaining it required practical

interactions with conquered people and in many cases their cooperation.

The rewards of empire for the Spanish were truly astonishing.

Thanks to the seizure of art and religious objects made with precious metals, the discovery

of mines, and the know-how of native Americans and others in running those mines, by the

mid-sixteenth century silver and gold were pouring into Spain.

And what had been a very poor kingdom became a very very rich one.

Let's go to the Thought Bubble.

It's now believed that pre-Columbian peoples knew how to use liquid mercury to process

silver and gold--a method that's still used today.

It was also used by the Spanish and by the end of the century the Portuguese

had discovered precious metals in Brazil, too.

The Portuguese cut down trees in Brazillian forests to trade in Brazilwood.

And sugar production flourished across the Caribbean beginning in Jamaica in 1515 and

eventually spreading across tropical and forested regions of the New World where the vast tracts

of trees could be felled to feed the fires needed for sugar refining.To launch and sustain

all these enterprises—mining, metallurgy, sugar refining, lumbering—Iberians initially

used the forced labor and know-how of local peoples, as I mentioned earlier.

The Spanish government awarded its soldiers and adventurers encomienda, that is the labor

of local people on a large plot of land.

But there were critics of this system among Europeans, perhaps most notably Bartolomé

Las Casas, a Catholic missionary who had helped in the savage conquest of Cuba and who had

received an encomienda for his participation.

But then the preaching of a Dominican friar made him see conquest in a different light

and he began a campaign on behalf of local people.

Las Casas, while underscoring the benefits of conversion to Christianity, lambasted his

fellow conquerors for their murder, brutality, and pillage.

He wrote of native Americans, “To subject them first by warlike means is a form and

procedure contrary to the law … and gentleness of Jesus Christ.”

Las Casas wrote much more and lobbied the Spanish court (some would say he harassed

it), beginning in some historians' minds the drive for what are considered today human

rights.

Thanks, Thought Bubble.

Las Casas' story is a reminder that the cause of human rights always needs people

who have them in order to press it forward.

But ultimately the people who are responsible for expansions in human rights are the people

who are denied them and insist upon their humanity anyway.

So to shift perspectives for a moment, some Europeans were advocating for human rights

but many many people without those rights were advocating for them.

And as for indigenous people in the New World, to present one story of their response to

colonization would be inaccurate--at times, communities and individuals resisted; at times,

some cooperated.

But it's hard to overstate how destabilizing it was to these communities to lose in many

cases 90% of their population.

One of the huge changes though was the arrival of Christianity and the demand that the colonized

become Christians.

Christianity changed the Americas, but the Americas also changed Christianity.

In the face of the demand of the Church that conquered people become Catholic, they might

for instance blend their own beliefs with Catholic ones.

In 1531, the Aztec Cuauhtlatoatzin, whose baptismal name was Juan Diego, had five visions

of the Virgin Mary on a sacred Aztec spot of the corn goddess, near Mexico City.

Mary's miracles left an imprint of her form on Juan Diego's cape.

And on the cape, Mary appeared to be an Aztec woman wearing a robe with Aztec designs and

symbols.

This version of Mary, known as Our Lady of Guadalupe, was brown-skinned and was often

called, “the dark virgin.”

Many shrines to Our Lady of Guadalupe were built, and her story was written down both

in Spanish and in the Aztec language, Nahuatl.

Our Lady of Guadalupe replaced some of the local goddesses that were suppressed by the

Christians.

Women in particular took up devotion to her as a symbol of motherhood.

And today, Our Lady of Guadalupe's basilica in Mexico City is said to be the most visited

shrine in the world.

It wasn't too long before other European powers, eyeing these profits, sought to literally

capture Spanish wealth.

Like English privateer Francis Drake began his career of attacking Spanish shipping in

the 1560s and often seized huge fortunes for the queen and investors in his voyages.

While circumnavigating the globe, he captured stores of Spanish gold and silver from ships

along the west coast of South America.

In some cases, a single seizure might yield the equivalent of an entire year's income

for the royal treasury.

You heard that right--taking down one Spanish ship could equal all the tax collection in

England for a year--which gives you a sense of just how much wealth was being extracted

from colonies.

No wonder Elizabeth knighted Drake in 1581 after he returned from his historic circumnavigation—which

was only the second circumnavigation of the globe in European history at the time.

And Drake made it home Magellan.

Stan am I allowed to make a joke about Magellan dying.

Has enough time passed?

Stan says “yes”.

Right.

So the French, Dutch, and other treasure-hungry people joined the English in Atlantic piracy,

which increased the wealth of many European kingdoms and individuals of course.

But those same European states also began imitating the Portuguese and Spanish in global

exploration, trade, and eventually settlement.

In 1497, Italian sailor John Cabot, which was not his Italian name by the way.

I've always found it very funny that the two most famous Italian sailors in history

are named John Cabot and Christopher Columbus.

At any rate John Cabot commissioned by Henry VII of England and landed somewhere north

of Maine, probably on the Canadian coast.

And then returned to London to great acclaim.

The English established the East India Company in 1600 to focus on their exploration efforts

and the Dutch founded a similar United East India Company in 1602, which brought together

several trading companies from various Dutch states.

And other governments chartered similar corporations.

These companies performed a variety of functions from gathering investors, and building ships,

to raising armies and taking over new territory and enslaving people to work conquered land.

Lest you think that like corporations are newly evil.

Which brings us to the slave trade.

Initially, Portuguese sailors sought to catch Africans they happened to spot along the coast,

and then sell them as slaves in Europe.

But by the end of the sixteenth century, the capture of Africans for sale to Europeans

became routine and then eventually a massive business for both African slade traders and

Europeans after 1650.

And this was also partly due to disease and the devastation of colonization.

The Spanish had trouble with sugar production in the Caribbean after the native Taino people

had been wiped out by disease; the British then took over and began importing African

slaves to work in sugar plantations.

By the eighteenth century British slavers had taken the lead in the Atlantic trade.

Partly due to petitions like those from Las Casas, Spanish rulings that Native Americans

could not be enslaved led the Spanish landowners and mine operators to import Africans and

Asians to stay within the law, which did not yet say that you know people could not be

enslaved.

Some Asian slaves, once brought to the Spanish Empire, were able to pass as local people,

and claim their freedom on that basis.

But almost everyone who was enslaved died in slavery.

Life expectancy was very low; all manner of mistreatment was common; and legal protections

were almost nonexistent.

It's very important to consider those perspectives too.

And also to consider why traditionally those perspectives have been ignored.

We've talked about how the establishment of transoceanic travel meant that diseases,

and people, and finished goods were traveling across oceans but so were plants and animal

species.

This whole process is sometimes known as the Columbian exchange.

This movement of goods and people and species across the Atlantic was tremendously important

to history--before it, new world foods like pumpkins and tomatoes, maize, potatoes did

not even exist in Afroeurasia.

Did the globe open up?

What's in the center of the world?

It's a pumpkin.

You want to know why there were no jack-o-lanterns in 13th century Europe?

There were no pumpkins.

There was no popcorn because there was no corn.

#sponsored.

I wish.

I love this stuff.

You know the famous bananas of South America?

No, you don't.

Bananas are from Africa.

They didn't exist in the Americas until the Columbian exchange.

So much of what feels natural and even defining about our cultures and histories is in fact

really really new.

Nigerian cassava.

Irish potatoes.

Vanilla Ice Cream in Europe.

Tomatoes in Italy.

None of this was conceivable before the Columbian exchange.

Europeans also learned a lot from the Americas about food preservation.

Like the Incas dried some potatoes for instance, which made them lighter and easier to transport,

and then would later reconstitute them so they could be eaten, a strategy which fortified

messengers along the Inca's extensive network of roads.

Similar processes came to be used in Europe and would eventually be used to fortify astronauts,

who often eat reconstituted dehydrated food.

And over time potatoes and maize (know here as corn) increased overall calories available

to Europeans because they could be dried and stored in huge quantities.

And that decreased starvation and increased populations.

Meanwhile, as we've discussed, the travel of microbes to the Americas devastated communities

there, and a range of Afroeurasian animals--horses, sheep, and pigs to name a few--arrived in

the New World for the first time.

In some ways, these new animals were useful of course, but they also did extensive damage,

stripping away vegetation necessary for soil conservation and trampling farm land.

And deforestation began with the clearing of forests for sugar cane production, as we

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Expansion and Consequences: Crash Course European History #5 (1) Expansión y consecuencias: Curso acelerado de Historia Europea #5 (1) Expansion et conséquences : Cours accéléré d'histoire européenne #5 (1) Espansione e conseguenze: Corso accelerato di storia europea #5 (1) 拡大と結果クラッシュコース ヨーロッパ史 第5回 (1) Ekspansja i jej konsekwencje: przyspieszony kurs historii Europy #5 (1) Expansão e consequências: Crash Course História Europeia #5 (1) Экспансия и последствия: Краткий курс европейской истории #5 (1) Genişleme ve Sonuçları: Crash Course Avrupa Tarihi #5 (1) 扩展和后果:欧洲历史速成课程#5 (1) 擴展與後果:歐洲歷史速成課程#5 (1)

Hi I'm John Green and this is Crash Course European History.

So today we're going to continue looking at European expansion and its impact on the

world's humans.

Like, imagine learning that there are people in places you did not know existed, that they

eat foods you've never seen, that their world contains plant and animal species entirely

different from your world.

What people thought was one world turned out to be two, and the collision of those worlds 人々が一つの世界だと思っていたものが、二つの世界であることが判明した。

wrought devastation and opportunity on a truly mind-boggling scale. caused||||||||mind-blowing| は、まさに気の遠くなるような規模で、荒廃と好機をもたらした。

And today, we're going to ask you to look at the consequences of European expansion,

and consider how those consequences change depending on where you find yourself.

INTRO Destruction from Iberian expansion was truly

extraordinary across the sixteenth century. remarkable|||| 16世紀をまたぐ異常事態。

As Hernan Cortes commented: “We could not walk without treading on the bodies and heads |||||||||stepping on||||| エルナン・コルテスはこうコメントした:「我々は、死体や頭を踏まずに歩くことはできなかった。

of dead Indians.”[i] Besides the slaughter of empire-building directly インディアンの死体の山」[i]。

inflicted by the invaders and their local allies, the ongoing progress of smallpox, caused by|||||||local supporters|||||smallpox epidemic's spread 天然痘は、侵略者とその地元の同盟者によってもたらされ、現在も進行中である、

and measles, and other diseases that Europeans brought to the Americas completely overwhelmed |infectious disease|||||||||||overpowered や麻疹など、ヨーロッパ人がアメリカ大陸に持ち込んだ病気は、アメリカ人を完全に圧倒した。

the healthcare systems of native Americans. ネイティブ・アメリカンの医療システム

Many millions died.

Within a century, the population of native Americans had fallen perhaps by as much as

90%.

Throughout the Spanish Empire in the Americas the colonizers made use of existing political アメリカ大陸におけるスペイン帝国の全域で、植民者たちは既存の政治的・経済的・文化的・社会的な問題を利用した。

structures that were already in place for collecting taxes and otherwise maintaining 税金の徴収やその他の維持のために、すでに整備されていた仕組みである。

order.

Even as the Spanish king appointed elite men from Spain as viceroys enforcing civil and |||||||||||colonial governors||| スペイン国王がスペインのエリートたちを総督に任命し、民政と政治を執行させた。

military rule over what had been the Incan Empire for instance, the Incan systems of |||||||Inca|||||||

roads and communication networks facilitated Spanish domination. ||||enabled|| 道路と通信網はスペインの支配を促進した。

It's also important to remember that because the Spanish had never before experienced almost

three- thousand-mile-long imperial operation, like the one the Incans had, the Spanish had ||||||||||Inca Empire|||| インカ人が行ったような3000マイルに及ぶ帝国作戦を、スペイン人は行った。

very little understanding of how to maintain its functions or to provide for its upkeep. ||||||||||||||maintenance その機能を維持する方法や、維持のための資金を提供する方法については、ほとんど理解されていない。

Much as the Spanish empire initially depended on brute force, sustaining it required practical |||||||||||||pragmatic スペイン帝国が当初、武力に依存していたのと同様に、帝国を維持するには実践的な力が必要だった。

interactions with conquered people and in many cases their cooperation. 征服された人々との交流、そして多くの場合、彼らの協力。

The rewards of empire for the Spanish were truly astonishing. |||||||||remarkable スペイン人にとって帝国の報酬は実に驚くべきものだった。

Thanks to the seizure of art and religious objects made with precious metals, the discovery |||confiscation||||||||valuable||| 貴金属で作られた美術品や宗教的な品物が押収されたおかげで、次のような発見があった。

of mines, and the know-how of native Americans and others in running those mines, by the によって、鉱山と、その鉱山を経営するためのネイティブ・アメリカンやその他の人々のノウハウが破壊された。

mid-sixteenth century silver and gold were pouring into Spain. 16世紀半ば、銀と金がスペインに流入した。

And what had been a very poor kingdom became a very very rich one.

Let's go to the Thought Bubble.

It's now believed that pre-Columbian peoples knew how to use liquid mercury to process

silver and gold--a method that's still used today.

It was also used by the Spanish and by the end of the century the Portuguese

had discovered precious metals in Brazil, too. ||valuable||||

The Portuguese cut down trees in Brazillian forests to trade in Brazilwood. ||||||Brazilian|||||Brazilwood trade

And sugar production flourished across the Caribbean beginning in Jamaica in 1515 and |||prospered greatly||||||||

eventually spreading across tropical and forested regions of the New World where the vast tracts ||||||||||||||areas of land やがて新大陸の熱帯地域や森林地帯に広がり、その広大な土地に

of trees could be felled to feed the fires needed for sugar refining.To launch and sustain ||||cut down|||||||||||| 砂糖の精製に必要な火を焚くために、多くの木が伐採された。

all these enterprises—mining, metallurgy, sugar refining, lumbering—Iberians initially |||||||wood processing|| 鉱業、冶金業、製糖業、製材業など、これらすべての事業について、当初、イベリコ人は次のように考えていた。

used the forced labor and know-how of local peoples, as I mentioned earlier.

The Spanish government awarded its soldiers and adventurers encomienda, that is the labor |||granted to|||||forced labor system|||| スペイン政府は兵士や冒険家たちにエンコミエンダ(労働力)を与えた。

of local people on a large plot of land.

But there were critics of this system among Europeans, perhaps most notably Bartolomé ||||||||||||Bartolomé de しかし、ヨーロッパ人の中にもこのシステムを批判する者がいた。

Las Casas, a Catholic missionary who had helped in the savage conquest of Cuba and who had The|Houses|||religious envoy||||||brutal|||||| ラス・カサスは、野蛮なキューバ征服に協力したカトリック宣教師であり、また、キューバを支配していた。

received an encomienda for his participation. |||||involvement を受け取った。

But then the preaching of a Dominican friar made him see conquest in a different light |||sermonizing||||Dominican monk|||||||| しかし、ドミニコ会の修道士の説教によって、彼は征服というものを別の視点から見るようになった。

and he began a campaign on behalf of local people. ||||||for the||| そして、地元の人々のためにキャンペーンを始めた。

Las Casas, while underscoring the benefits of conversion to Christianity, lambasted his |||emphasizing||||conversion to Christianity|||criticized harshly|

fellow conquerors for their murder, brutality, and pillage. |||||||looting 征服者同志の殺人、残虐行為、略奪。

He wrote of native Americans, “To subject them first by warlike means is a form and ||||||||||military||||| 彼はアメリカ先住民についてこう書いている。

procedure contrary to the law … and gentleness of Jesus Christ.” action||||||||| 律法に反する手続き......イエス・キリストの優しさ"

Las Casas wrote much more and lobbied the Spanish court (some would say he harassed ||||||advocated at court||||||||persistently pressured ラス・カサスはさらに多くの文章を書き、スペイン宮廷に働きかけた。

it), beginning in some historians' minds the drive for what are considered today human そのため、歴史家の中には、今日人間と考えられているものを追求する動きが始まったと考える人もいる。

rights.

Thanks, Thought Bubble.

Las Casas' story is a reminder that the cause of human rights always needs people |||||significant lesson||||||||| ラス・カサスの物語は、人権の大義には常に人々が必要であることを思い起こさせる。

who have them in order to press it forward. それを押し進めるために、それを持つ人たち。

But ultimately the people who are responsible for expansions in human rights are the people しかし、結局のところ、人権の拡大に責任を負うのは国民なのである。

who are denied them and insist upon their humanity anyway. |||||assert|||| それを否定され、とにかく人間性を主張する人たち。

So to shift perspectives for a moment, some Europeans were advocating for human rights ||||||||||supporting|||

but many many people without those rights were advocating for them. しかし、そのような権利を持たない多くの人々が、権利を擁護していた。

And as for indigenous people in the New World, to present one story of their response to そして、新世界の先住民については、彼らの反応についての物語をひとつ紹介しよう。

colonization would be inaccurate--at times, communities and individuals resisted; at times, 植民地化は不正確である、

some cooperated. 何人かは協力した。

But it's hard to overstate how destabilizing it was to these communities to lose in many しかし、これらの地域社会にとって、多くのものを失ったことがどれほど不安定なものであったかは、誇張しがたい。

cases 90% of their population. 人口の90%を占める。

One of the huge changes though was the arrival of Christianity and the demand that the colonized

become Christians.

Christianity changed the Americas, but the Americas also changed Christianity.

In the face of the demand of the Church that conquered people become Catholic, they might

for instance blend their own beliefs with Catholic ones. ||combine|||||| 例えば、自分たちの信仰とカトリックの信仰を融合させる。

In 1531, the Aztec Cuauhtlatoatzin, whose baptismal name was Juan Diego, had five visions |||Cuauhtlato||baptism name||||||| 1531年、アステカのクアウトラトジン(洗礼名はフアン・ディエゴ)は5つの幻視を見た。

of the Virgin Mary on a sacred Aztec spot of the corn goddess, near Mexico City. ||Mary||||holy||||||goddess of corn||| メキシコ・シティ近郊にあるアステカのトウモロコシの女神の聖地に、聖母マリアの像がある。

Mary's miracles left an imprint of her form on Juan Diego's cape. |miracles|||mark or impression||||||Diego's|garment マリアの奇跡は、ファン・ディエゴのマントにその姿を残した。

And on the cape, Mary appeared to be an Aztec woman wearing a robe with Aztec designs and |||||||||||||garment|||| そして、マントの上には、マリアはアステカ文様のローブを着たアステカの女性に見えた。

symbols.

This version of Mary, known as Our Lady of Guadalupe, was brown-skinned and was often グアダルーペの聖母として知られるこのバージョンのマリアは、褐色の肌をしており、しばしばこう呼ばれた。

called, “the dark virgin.” "ダークバージン "と呼ばれている。

Many shrines to Our Lady of Guadalupe were built, and her story was written down both |places of worship|||||||||||||| グアダルーペの聖母を祀る多くの祠が建てられ、聖母の物語が書き記された。

in Spanish and in the Aztec language, Nahuatl. スペイン語とアステカ語のナワトル語で。

Our Lady of Guadalupe replaced some of the local goddesses that were suppressed by the グアダルーペの聖母は、ヴェルサイユ宮殿によって弾圧された地元の女神たちに取って代わった。

Christians.

Women in particular took up devotion to her as a symbol of motherhood. 特に女性たちは、母性の象徴として彼女を崇拝した。

And today, Our Lady of Guadalupe's basilica in Mexico City is said to be the most visited |||||Lady of Guadalupe||||||||||| そして今日、メキシコシティにあるグアダルーペの聖母マリアのバシリカは、最も多くの人々が訪れる場所となっている。

shrine in the world. place of worship|||

It wasn't too long before other European powers, eyeing these profits, sought to literally |||||||||||sought to|| この利益を狙う他のヨーロッパ列強が、文字どおり "貪欲に "その利益を追求するようになるまで、それほど長い時間はかからなかった。

capture Spanish wealth. スペインの富を獲得する。

Like English privateer Francis Drake began his career of attacking Spanish shipping in ||pirate ship captain|||||||||| イギリスの私掠船フランシス・ドレイクのように、スペインの海運を攻撃するキャリアをスタートさせた。

the 1560s and often seized huge fortunes for the queen and investors in his voyages. 1560年代の航海で、女王や投資家のために莫大な富を手にした。

While circumnavigating the globe, he captured stores of Spanish gold and silver from ships |sailing around|||||||||||| 地球を一周している間、彼は船からスペインの金銀を拿捕した。

along the west coast of South America.

In some cases, a single seizure might yield the equivalent of an entire year's income |||||||produce||||||| 場合によっては、1回の差し押さえで1年分の収入に相当する額が得られることもある。

for the royal treasury. |||royal funds 王室の国庫のために。

You heard that right--taking down one Spanish ship could equal all the tax collection in

England for a year--which gives you a sense of just how much wealth was being extracted

from colonies.

No wonder Elizabeth knighted Drake in 1581 after he returned from his historic circumnavigation—which |||awarded knighthood|||||||||global voyage| 1581年、歴史的な世界一周から帰還したドレークが、エリザベスからナイトの称号を与えられたのも不思議ではない。

was only the second circumnavigation of the globe in European history at the time. これは当時、ヨーロッパ史上2番目の世界一周であった。

And Drake made it home Magellan. そして、ドレイクはマゼランを帰した。

Stan am I allowed to make a joke about Magellan dying. スタンはマゼランが死ぬというジョークを言っていいのか?

Has enough time passed? 十分な時間が経過したか?

Stan says “yes”.

Right.

So the French, Dutch, and other treasure-hungry people joined the English in Atlantic piracy, ||||||||||||||pirate activities そのため、フランス人やオランダ人など財宝を欲しがる人々がイギリス人に混じって大西洋の海賊行為に手を染めた、

which increased the wealth of many European kingdoms and individuals of course.

But those same European states also began imitating the Portuguese and Spanish in global |||||||copying||||||

exploration, trade, and eventually settlement. investigation|||| 探検、貿易、そして最終的には定住。

In 1497, Italian sailor John Cabot, which was not his Italian name by the way.

I've always found it very funny that the two most famous Italian sailors in history

are named John Cabot and Christopher Columbus.

At any rate John Cabot commissioned by Henry VII of England and landed somewhere north |||||was appointed||||||||| いずれにせよ、ジョン・カボットはイングランドのヘンリー7世の依頼を受け、北のどこかに上陸した。

of Maine, probably on the Canadian coast. メイン州の、おそらくカナダ沿岸にある。

And then returned to London to great acclaim. |||||||praise and recognition そしてロンドンに戻り、大喝采を浴びた。

The English established the East India Company in 1600 to focus on their exploration efforts

and the Dutch founded a similar United East India Company in 1602, which brought together オランダは、1602年に同じような連合東インド会社を設立した。

several trading companies from various Dutch states. オランダ各州の商社数社。

And other governments chartered similar corporations. |||established||entities そして、他の政府も同様の会社を設立した。

These companies performed a variety of functions from gathering investors, and building ships, これらの会社は、投資家集めから船の建造まで、さまざまな機能を果たしていた、

to raising armies and taking over new territory and enslaving people to work conquered land. |||||||||subjugating individuals||||| 軍隊を興し、新しい領土を占領し、征服した土地で働くために人々を奴隷にする。

Lest you think that like corporations are newly evil. In case|||||businesses||| 企業が新たな悪であるかのように考えてはならない。

Which brings us to the slave trade.

Initially, Portuguese sailors sought to catch Africans they happened to spot along the coast, |||attempted to capture|||||||||| 当初、ポルトガルの船乗りは海岸沿いで偶然見つけたアフリカ人を捕まえようとしていた、

and then sell them as slaves in Europe. そしてヨーロッパで奴隷として売る。

But by the end of the sixteenth century, the capture of Africans for sale to Europeans しかし、16世紀末には、ヨーロッパ人に売るためにアフリカ人を捕獲するようになった。

became routine and then eventually a massive business for both African slade traders and |||||||||||slave||

Europeans after 1650.

And this was also partly due to disease and the devastation of colonization. そしてこれは、病気や植民地化の荒廃によるところもあった。

The Spanish had trouble with sugar production in the Caribbean after the native Taino people |||||||||||||Taino people| スペイン人はカリブ海の先住民タイノ族の砂糖生産に苦労した。

had been wiped out by disease; the British then took over and began importing African

slaves to work in sugar plantations. |||||sugar farms

By the eighteenth century British slavers had taken the lead in the Atlantic trade. |||||slave traders|||||||| 18世紀には、イギリスの奴隷商人たちが大西洋貿易の主導権を握っていた。

Partly due to petitions like those from Las Casas, Spanish rulings that Native Americans |||requests|||||||decisions||| ラス・カサスのような嘆願書の影響もあり、スペインはネイティブ・アメリカン(アメリカ先住民)に対し、次のような判決を下した。

could not be enslaved led the Spanish landowners and mine operators to import Africans and |||||||property owners||||||| スペインの地主や鉱山経営者たちは、奴隷にできないアフリカ人を輸入するようになった。

Asians to stay within the law, which did not yet say that you know people could not be

enslaved. 奴隷にされた。

Some Asian slaves, once brought to the Spanish Empire, were able to pass as local people, 一旦スペイン帝国に連れてこられたアジア系奴隷の中には、現地の人間として通用する者もいた、

and claim their freedom on that basis. その上で自由を主張する。

But almost everyone who was enslaved died in slavery.

Life expectancy was very low; all manner of mistreatment was common; and legal protections ||||||types||||||| 平均寿命は非常に短く、あらゆる虐待が一般的であり、法的保護もなかった。

were almost nonexistent. はほとんど存在しなかった。

It's very important to consider those perspectives too.

And also to consider why traditionally those perspectives have been ignored.

We've talked about how the establishment of transoceanic travel meant that diseases, 大洋横断航路が確立されたことで、病気が発生しやすくなったという話はした、

and people, and finished goods were traveling across oceans but so were plants and animal 海を渡って移動するのは、植物や動物だけではなかった。

species.

This whole process is sometimes known as the Columbian exchange. この一連のプロセスは、コロンブス交換として知られることもある。

This movement of goods and people and species across the Atlantic was tremendously important ||||||||||||extremely significant|

to history--before it, new world foods like pumpkins and tomatoes, maize, potatoes did ||||||||pumpkins|||corn||

not even exist in Afroeurasia.

Did the globe open up?

What's in the center of the world?

It's a pumpkin. ||a gourd

You want to know why there were no jack-o-lanterns in 13th century Europe? ||||||||||jack-o-lantern||||

There were no pumpkins.

There was no popcorn because there was no corn. |||snack food|||||

#sponsored. paid partnership

I wish.

I love this stuff.

You know the famous bananas of South America?

No, you don't.

Bananas are from Africa.

They didn't exist in the Americas until the Columbian exchange.

So much of what feels natural and even defining about our cultures and histories is in fact ||||||||characteristic||||||||

really really new.

Nigerian cassava. |a starchy root ナイジェリアのキャッサバ

Irish potatoes.

Vanilla Ice Cream in Europe. plain flavor||||

Tomatoes in Italy.

None of this was conceivable before the Columbian exchange. ||||imaginable||||

Europeans also learned a lot from the Americas about food preservation.

Like the Incas dried some potatoes for instance, which made them lighter and easier to transport,

and then would later reconstitute them so they could be eaten, a strategy which fortified ||||restore to original||||||||||strengthened the food そして、それを後で食べられるように再構成する。

messengers along the Inca's extensive network of roads. |||Inca Empire|||| インカの広大な道路網に沿ったメッセンジャーたち。

Similar processes came to be used in Europe and would eventually be used to fortify astronauts, ||||||||||||||strengthen|space travelers 同様のプロセスはヨーロッパでも使われるようになり、やがて宇宙飛行士の強化にも使われるようになる、

who often eat reconstituted dehydrated food. ||||dried out| 脱水食品を再構成して食べることが多い。

And over time potatoes and maize (know here as corn) increased overall calories available そして、ジャガイモとトウモロコシ(ここではトウモロコシとして知られている)が、長い時間をかけて、利用可能なカロリー全体を増加させた。

to Europeans because they could be dried and stored in huge quantities. 大量に乾燥させ、保存することができたからである。

And that decreased starvation and increased populations.

Meanwhile, as we've discussed, the travel of microbes to the Americas devastated communities |||||||microorganisms||||| 一方、これまで述べてきたように、アメリカ大陸への微生物の移動は地域社会を荒廃させた。

there, and a range of Afroeurasian animals--horses, sheep, and pigs to name a few--arrived in そして、馬、羊、豚など、アフロエウラシアの動物たちが、この地にやってきたのである。

the New World for the first time.

In some ways, these new animals were useful of course, but they also did extensive damage, ある意味では、これらの新しい動物はもちろん役に立ったが、被害も甚大だった、

stripping away vegetation necessary for soil conservation and trampling farm land. removing||||||soil preservation||compressing the soil|| 土壌保全に必要な植生を剥ぎ取り、農地を踏み荒らす。

And deforestation began with the clearing of forests for sugar cane production, as we |forest removal|||||||||sugar cane|||