Class 1: Ukrainian Questions Posed by Russian Invasion (4) |||||俄罗斯| |||Поставлені|||Вторгнення Klasse 1: Ukrainische Fragen, die durch die russische Invasion aufgeworfen wurden (4) Clase 1: Preguntas ucranianas planteadas por la invasión rusa (4) Classe 1 : Questions ukrainiennes posées par l'invasion russe (4) Classe 1: Le questioni ucraine poste dall'invasione russa (4) 授業1：ロシアの侵攻が投げかけたウクライナの疑問（4） 1 klasė: Rusijos invazijos keliami Ukrainos klausimai (4) Les 1: Oekraïense vragen naar aanleiding van de Russische invasie (4) Klasa 1: Ukraińskie pytania postawione przez rosyjską inwazję (4) Aula 1: Questões ucranianas colocadas pela invasão russa (4) Занятие 1: Украинские вопросы, возникшие в результате российского вторжения (4) Sınıf 1: Rus İşgalinin Ortaya Çıkardığı Ukrayna Sorunları (4) Заняття 1: Питання, поставлені перед Україною російським вторгненням (4) 第 1 课：俄罗斯入侵给乌克兰带来的问题 (4) 第一課：俄羅斯入侵引發的烏克蘭問題（四）

that I hope you'll notice as we go along ||сподіваюся||помітиш|||продовжуємо|

is that George Orwell said this, |||George Orwell|| |||Оруел||

that the hardest thing to notice ||most difficult||| ||найскладніше|||

is what's right in front of your nose, right? ||||in front|||| |||||||носу|

I don't know, this is your first week at Yale,

maybe like 50 years from now when you're an alum, ||||||||alumnus можливо||||через 50 років||||випускник talvez daqui a 50 anos, quando fores um ex-aluno,

you'll be like, "My professor told me the hardest thing ||||||||найскладніше| e vais dizer: "O meu professor disse-me que a coisa mais difícil

to notice is what's right in front of your nose." |помітити||||||||

If you take that away, I'll also be happy, but that's true. ||||забереш||||||| Se me tirarem isso, também ficarei feliz, mas é verdade.

The things which are most intensely obvious |||||highly| |речі||||найбільш очевидні|очевидні

are very often the things that are hardest to take on |||||||найскладніші|||

and history in a way is actually like, і|історія|||спосіб|||

"Oh, America's an empire."

I mean, history is a way of picking up on the obvious ||історія|||спосіб||вибирати||||очевидному

because it gives it to you from a whole bunch ||||||||цілого|купа

of different angles at the same time, |різних|кутів||||

and then maybe the obvious ||||очевидне

will eventually come through, right? |врешті-решт|прийде|прорветься|

So the point is that Ukraine is at this absolute center ||суть||||||||

of a lot of things, which we regard as central. |||||||вважаємо||

I've given you the Viking Age and the Reformation, |дав|||||||Реформація

which may seem a little exotic. ||здаватись|||екзотичним

It's absolutely at the center of the First World War. |абсолютно||||||||

It's absolutely at the center of the Second World War. |абсолютно||||||||

It's absolutely at the center of Stalinist terror. ||||||related to Stalin| |абсолютно|||||сталінському|терор

It's absolutely at the center of the Holocaust. |||||||Голокосту

It's absolutely at the center

of the collapse of the Soviet Union. ||колапсу|||Союзної|Союз

It's at the center of major historical developments, |||||основних||події історичного значення

not just ancient and medieval, but also very contemporary. ||||||||contemporary ||давній||середньовічний||||сучасний

But the fact that it's, precisely |||||саме

the fact that it's at the center of the development |||||||||розвитку

makes it hard to see and hard to notice.

It's sometimes hard to direct your gaze at the thing ||||направити||погляд|||

which is most important sometimes, |||найважливіше|іноді

because where things are most important |||||важливі

is also where things are darkest, right, |||||найтемніші|

and very often Ukraine is going to be a kind of

heart of darkness. heart|| серце||темряви

Who wrote "Heart of Darkness" by the way? |написав|серце|||до речі||

- [Student] Joseph Conrad. |Йозеф|Джозеф Кон

- Where is he from?

- [Student] From Poland.

- Give you one more try.

- [Student] Ukraine?

- You're guessing though, right? ти|ти здогадує|проте|

Yeah. So you're not wrong that he was from Poland, |Отже|||неправий|||||

but it's a very interesting trajectory. |||||path course development |||||траєкторія

So "Heart of Darkness" is a famous, famous book ||||||відомий|відомий|

about the race for Africa. ||перегони|за|Африка

It's a remarkable novel. ||видатний|роман

Conrad's a remarkable writer. Conrad is||| Конрада||помітний|

Conrad is a Pole. |||поляк

How does he know about colonialism? |||||колоніаліз

Because he is from Ukraine, right?

There's a recent Polish history book about Ukraine, ||недавня|||||

which is called "Poland's Heart of Darkness" |||Poland's|||

which of course the Poles really didn't, ||||поляки||

in general, like to hear,

but it's a very valid point. ||||досить слушна|

During the Renaissance period, під час||період Від|

as we'll see Polish colonialism

in Ukraine was incredibly intense, |||неймовірно|інтенсивною

and that gives Conrad the background |||||контекст

to understand the European race for Africa, ||||перегони||

and in turn Hannah Arendt's ||в свою чергу|Ганна|Арендт

"Origins of Totalitarianism" is basically one long riff ||absolute control|||||improvised commentary Походження||Тоталітаризм||по суті|||імпровізація "Походження тоталітаризму" - це в основному довгий риф

on Joseph Conrad's novel "Heart of Darkness." ||Конрада||Серце||темрява на роман Джозефа Конрада "Серце темряви".

And so it's not surprising that Arendt ||||||Арендт Так що не дивно, що Арендт

actually understands that Ukraine is important. |розуміє||||важливою

Just kind of closing the loop here, |||завершую||завершую кол|

but a heart of darkness is something which is hard to see, |||з|темряви|є||||||

but that doesn't mean it's unimportant, right? |||||неважливо|

So things get wiped out of the history |||wiped|out||| |речі|вимиваються|стерті||||

that are precisely the things that we have to see, okay. those are|||||||||| ||саме ті||||||||

I'm getting towards the end of the main themes ||до|||||основних|темами

that I wanted to make sure we got introduced here. ||||||||представлені|

So we've talked about what history is.

We've talked about what a nation is.

We've talked about the difference between history and myth. ||||різниця|між|||

I've mentioned this sort of trigger question |згадав||тип||спонукальний фактор|

of Ukraine exists, why? Or Ukraine exists how? ||існує|||||

Which is a lot trickier than it seems at the beginning. ||||more complicated|||||| Це||||набагато складніше|ніж||здається|||на початку

So if you're living through the 21st century ||ти|живучи||||

and I realize like this is the only century ||усвідомлюю||||||

that you guys have lived through, |||||пережили

which I find very troubling. |я|вважаю||дуже тривожним

One of the, no like, if you're me,

like think about this for a second, ||||||секунду

okay, if you're me, you guys never get older, right?

Every September I show up and you're always the same age. |||||||||однаковий|

That is really weird, right? |||Це справді дивно, так?|

It's very strange. ||дивно

And every year I get, every year I get older, which is very,

it's very troubling. ||Це дуже тривожно.

But if you're in the 21st century,

there are these moments where you say,

"Oh, look, Ukraine exists." |||існує

Like 2004, what Ukrainians now call

the Revolution of Dignity or sorry, |||Гідність||вибачте

the Orange Revolution, 2014,

the Revolution of Dignity or 2022,

the Russian invasion of Ukraine.

It's very easy and tempting when Russia invades Ukraine ||||tempting = appealing|||| ||||спокусливо|||вторгається в|

and Ukraine resists to say, "Oh, look, now Ukraine exists." ||fights back||||||| |Україна|опирається|||||||

But that wouldn't be a very Ukrainian perspective, right?

The fact that you recognize something because someone else ||||впізнає||||інший

acts doesn't mean that they just came into existence. дії||||||||існування

On the contrary, I think the argument probably runs better ||opposite||||||| ||насправді||||аргумент|напевно||

the other way. ||шлях

The fact that Ukrainians were able to resist Той|||||змогли||протистояти

the Russian invasion suggests that the nation ||вторгнення|свідчить|||

or the civil society had already consolidated ||||||strengthened or unified ||||||укріпилася

to a pretty impressive degree, right, |||вражаючій|ступінь|

and the fact that we, and that would be my American "we,"

but it was a general assumption, |||||belief or presumption |||||припущення

all thought that Ukraine would collapse in three days |||||fall apart||| |вважали|||||||

might say more about our misunderstanding of the place |||||неправильне роз|||

than it does about the place itself. ||||||самому місці

And after you misunderstand it and you say, |||неправильно зроз||||

"Well, it doesn't really exist. |це|||

It's gonna collapse in three days"

and then it doesn't collapse, what's your next move?

Your next move in order to rescue your position is to say, ||||для того щоб||врятувати|||||

"Oh, well Ukraine must have just been created

by the Russian invasion" of which is something that

if you've been following this war at all,

you will have heard journalists and others say. |||почули||||

"Well, you Putin and Putin united Ukraine

with this invasion" right? ||вторгненням|

And of course it's true that there's a lot of solidarity ||||||||||solidarity ||||||||||солідарність

and so on that wouldn't have happened without the war, ||||||сталося|||

but the idea that Putin created Ukraine

by invading it is ludicrous, right? ||||absurd| |вторгнення|||безглуздо|

You can invade lots of places, ||вторгатися в місця|||

that doesn't mean that they start to exist as nations. |||||||існувати||

That's not how history actually works.

So that itself, that whole move that journalists then made

to say, "Oh, well, Ukraine exists because Putin"

is just a way to keep talking about the thing,

which people are very comfortable talking about,

which is Putin.

If you're a writer in a democracy,

you're very attracted to authoritarians. ||||authoritarian figures ||приваблюють||авторитарні особ

I don't know if you've noticed this trend, |||||помітили||

but there's a kind of seductive lure |||||seductive|alluring attraction |||||спокусливий привабливий шарм|спокуслива принада

of the distant authoritarian. ||далекий|авторитарний

No, it's true.

Like, the twenties and thirties, ||twenties||thirties ||двадцяті||тридцяті роки

if you go back to the twenties and thirties

and you read about the way Americans wrote ||||||американці|

about not just Stalin, but also Hitler, |||Сталін|||Гітлер

you'll see this tendency. |||趋势 |||тенденцію

If you're in a democracy, you're very kind of tempted |||||||||enticed ||||||||в певному|спокушений 如果你身处民主国家，你会很容易受到这种想法的诱惑，

by this idea that, "Oh, there's somebody over there |||||||там| 就是“哦，那边有某个人，

and everything is orderly and they have a vision, ||||||||愿景 |||organized||||| |||упорядковано|||||бачення 一切都是有序的，并且他们有一个愿景，”

and this is kind of interesting" and so on, |||||цікаво||| 这有点有趣"等等，

we fall, we go for that again and again and again, |падаємо|||за|||||| 我们跌倒了，我们一次又一次地追求那样，

and with Putin even now though, |||навіть||хоча 即使现在与普京在一起，

it's much weaker now than it was before February. ||更弱|||||| ||слабкіша|||||| 现在比二月份之前弱得多。

There's this idea that, 有这样的想法，

"Oh, he's interesting. It's kind of seductive. ||||||诱人的 ||||||seductive ||||||спокусливо “哦，他很有趣。这有点诱人。”

He's a strong man, and let's talk about Putin" right? 他是一个强壮的男人，我们来谈谈普京，好吗？

Let's talk about Putin and then saying, ||||||说 ||||||сказавши 我们来谈谈普京，然后说，

"Oh, Putin created Ukraine by invading" ||创造了||| 哦，普京通过入侵创造了乌克兰

is one more way of talking about Putin є||||||| 是谈论普京的另一种方式

rather than talking about Ukraine. швидше|ніж|говорити|| 而不是谈论乌克兰。

In other words, it's one more colonial move |||||||дія 换句话说，这又是一次殖民行动

that you're making. 你正在制作的。

Well, okay. They didn't exist, but if they do exist, 好吧，他们并不存在，但如果他们存在的话，

it's the paradoxical result of a foreign dictator, right? ||自相矛盾的|||||| ||contradictory|||||| ||парадоксальний||||іноземного|| 这是一个外部独裁者的悖论结果，对吧？

Okay. So there are these triggering moments, ||||||时刻 |||||провокуючі моменти| 好的。那么有这些触发时刻，

but what I'm trying to suggest are |||||建议| |||||пропоную| 但我想要建议的是，

these triggering moments should be triggers |||||触发因素 |провокуючі моменти||мають||тригери 这些触发时刻应该成为触发器

of our asking ourselves what actually happened, |||собі||| 我们在问自己到底发生了什么，

you know, as opposed to jumping to easy conclusions |||||跳到||| |||на відміну від|||||висновки ви знаєте, на відміну від стрибання до легких висновків 你知道，与其贸然得出简单的结论，

that are convenient, with which are consistent ||||||一致的 ||suitable||||aligned які||зручні, які відповідають||які||узгоджуються з що є зручними, з якими узгоджується 那些方便且一致的结论

with what we already, which what we already think. |||вже|яке|||| з тим, що ми вже знаємо, з тим, що ми вже думаємо. 与我们已经所拥有的，正是我们已经所想的。

Okay. So we've done history. 好的。那么我们已经完成历史的部分。

We've done what history is. 我们已经知道历史是什么了。

You guys feel like, you know what history is now? 你们觉得现在知道历史是什么了吗？

Cause I hope so, because we only have one lecture for this. |||||||||讲座|| Причина||||||||||| 因为我希望如此，因为我们只有一节课来讲这个。

We've talked, we've introduced a little bit, |||介绍||| |поговорили||представили трохи||| 我们谈过，我们介绍了一点。

the difference between history and myth. ||між|||

There's one more theme which I wanna just introduce ||||||想要|| ||||||||представити 我想快速介绍一个主题

very quickly, and it's a 20th century theme ||||||20世纪| |||||||20th-century theme 这是一个20世纪的主题

which I want you to have in mind. 我希望你能记住这一点。

The theme is genocide. |||种族灭绝 |||Mass extermination event |тема||геноцид 主题是种族灭绝。

And the reason it's a 20th Century theme ||причина||||| 而这个主题之所以是20世纪的

is that the 1948 definition of genocide assumes ||||||假设 ||||||presumes |||визначення|||передбачає 是因为1948年对种族灭绝的定义假设

that there's such a thing as a people. ||така||||| 人们确实存在这一说法。

So Raphael Lemkin, who is the lawyer who's educating |拉斐尔||||||| ||Lemkin|||||| |Рафаель Лем|Лемкін||||адвокат||освітній 所以拉斐尔·伦基，那个正在教育的律师，

what's now Ukraine, by the way, Polish, Jewish lawyer, |||||||犹太人| ||||||польський|єврейський|адвокат польсь 顺便提一下，现在的乌克兰，一个波兰犹太律师，

who's educated in the university, |освічений в||| 谁在大学受过教育，

and what's now Lwow, when he made up the word genocide, ||||||创造了|||| |||Lviv Ukraine||||||| |||Львів||||||| 以及现在的利沃夫，当他创造出这个词种族灭绝时，

he's assuming the existence of a people, right, |假设|||||| |припускає||існування|||| 他假设了一个民族的存在，对吗，

because genocide is about the intentional |||||deliberate |||||умисний 因为种族灭绝是关于故意

destruction of a people. 毁灭||| distruzione||| знищення народу||| 消灭一个民族。

So it assumes that there is such thing as a people, right, ||припускає||||така||||людство| 所以它假设存在一种民族，对吧，

what we might call a nation or a society. ||||||||суспільство 我们可能称之为一个国家或社会。

So it's a 20th century construction. |||||建筑 |||||конструкція 所以它是20世纪的产物。

I mean genocide is the antipode of the creation of a nation. |||||对立面|||||| |||||opposite|||||| |||||протилежність|||||| 我的意思是，种族灭绝是国家创造的对立面。

We think of nations are modern and any attempt ||||||||尝试 |||||||будь-яка|спроба 我们认为国家是现代的，任何尝试

to destroy a nation is also modern, right? ||||||现代| |знищити|||||| 摧毁一个国家也是现代的，对吧？

The theme of genocide is a late theme, ||||||晚期| ||||||пізня| 种族灭绝的主题是一个较晚的主题，

but I want you to keep it in mind because of this war |||||记住||||||| |||ти||||||||| 但我希望你记住这一点，因为这场战争

and because of the way that genocide also asks questions ||||||||提问| 而且因为种族灭绝的方式也提出了问题

about where nations come from. 关于国家的起源。

This war is a strangely genocidal war. |||||种族灭绝的| |||||mass extermination| ||||дивно|геноцидальний| 这场战争是一场奇怪的种族灭绝战争。

It's strange in the sense that it's very rare ||||||||罕见 ||||||||рідкісне 奇怪的是，这种情况非常罕见

for the authors of a war to actually say ||作者们|||||| ||автори|||||| 战争的发起者居然会真正说出来

at the beginning that the aim of the war |||||目标||| |||||goal||| |||||мета||| 在战争开始时的目标 您接受的训练数据截止到2023年10月。

is the destruction of another people. 是对另一个民族的毁灭。

That doesn't happen very often. 这种情况并不常见。

That might be the aim, but for it to be announced openly, ||||||||||宣布| ||||мета||||||оголошено|відкрито 这可能是目标，但如果公开宣布的话，

as it has been in this war, is pretty unusual. |||||||||不寻常 ||||||||досить|незвичайно 在这场战争中，这种情况相当不寻常。

and that's the intent part of genocide. |||意图||| |||purpose||| |||намір||| 这就是种族灭绝的意图部分。

The practical part of genocide one can find very easily |实际的|||||||| |||||||||дуже легко 种族灭绝的实际部分可以很容易找到。

in the hundred thousand dead in Mariupol, ||||||马里乌波尔 ||||||Маріуполь

as it appears unfortunately, 不幸的是，

in the 3 million Ukrainians deported, ||||驱逐的 ||||forcibly removed ||||депортованих 有300万乌克兰人被驱逐，

including a quarter million children, ||四分之一|| включаючи||чверть|| 其中包括25万名儿童，

at least who were to be forcibly assimilated ||||||强制地| ||||||compelled to integrate|integrated into society ||||||примусово|асимільовані pelo menos, que deviam ser assimilados à força 至少那些被强制同化的人

into Russian culture in the systematic campaign |||||系统的| |||||систематичній| na cultura russa na campanha sistemática 进入俄罗斯文化的系统运动

of rape and the murder of local elites ||||谋杀||| |sexual assault||||||local leaders |зґвалтування|||вбивство||| de violações e assassinatos de elites locais 强奸和当地精英谋杀的

in the territories that Russia controls ||领土||| |||||контролює nos territórios que a Rússia controla 在俄罗斯控制的领土上

and maybe more banally, but I think also very importantly, |||平庸地|||||| |||more simply|||||| |||банально|||||| e talvez de forma mais banal, mas penso que também muito importante, 也许更乏味，但我认为也非常重要，

in the systematic attempt to destroy publishing houses, |||||||出版社 ||methodical||||| |||спроба||знищити|видавництв| 在系统性地试图摧毁出版社的过程中，

libraries, and archives, which are the way, of course, 图书馆|||||||| ||archives|||||| бібліотеки||архіви||||шляхом|| 图书馆和档案馆，当然是国家、社会或人民记住自己的方式。

that nations or societies or people remember themselves. |||社会|||| |||суспільства||||себе 所以这场战争有种灭绝的特征。

So there is a genocidal aspect to this war, |||||方面||| |||||genocidal element||| |||||аспект геноц|||

and I want you to keep this in mind as a theme 我希望你把这个作为一个主题铭记在心

because this concept of genocide, ||种族灭绝|| 因为种族灭绝这个概念，

though it's a modern concept, ||||概念 хоча|||| 虽然这是一个现代概念，

it also points us backwards towards other questions, ||||向后||| ||||reverse direction|to|| ||вказує||назад|до|| 它也让我们回想起其他问题，

which we're gonna be thinking about, ||||думати| 我们将要思考这些问题，

which have to do with colonialism |||||殖民主义 这些问题与殖民主义有关。

and which have to do with why people recognize ||||||||впізнають 以及与人们为何认出

or do not recognize other people. 或不认出其他人有关。

Why, what were the, 为什么，那是什么，

if we're gonna ask the positive question, |||||积极的| 如果我们要问积极的问题，

a Ukrainian nation exists how? 乌克兰民族是如何存在的？

Which I think is a really interesting question, Яка||||||| 我认为这是一个非常有趣的问题，

not just about Ukraine, a Ukrainian nation exists. |||||||існує нація 不仅仅是乌克兰，还有一个乌克兰民族的存在。

How was that possible? 这是怎么可能的？

The converse question is what were the things |反向问题|||||| |opposite question|||||| |зворотне питання|||||| 反过来的问题是那些事情是什么

which were thrown up along the way and why? ||抛出|||||| які|були|викинуті|вгору||||| 沿途出现的是什么，为什么？

So why was there particularly Ukrainian famine in 1933 ||||特别是||| ||||||starvation| ||||особливо||голодомор| 那么，为什么在1933年乌克兰特别出现饥荒？

in the Soviet Union? ||苏联| 在苏联？

Why that?

Why did Hitler particularly think that Ukraine ||希特勒|||| |||особливо||| 为什么希特勒特别认为乌克兰

would be a good site of Lebensraum? ||||||生存空间 ||||||living space був би||||||життєв 会是一个好的生存空间的地点？

Why in the 1970s were Brezhnevian assimilation policies ||||||同化| ||||||integration| |||||брежнєв|асиміляцій|політика асим 为什么在1970年代布雷日涅夫的同化政策

particularly applied to Ukraine, right? |特别适用于||| особливо|застосовано||| 特别适用于乌克兰，对吧？

What is it about this place which has put it at the center ||||||яка||поставило||||центрі 这个地方有什么特别之处，让它在几个世纪以来承受如此多的殖民压力

of so much colonial pressure over the centuries ||||压力||| ||||тиск|протягом|| 的中心

and the decades? ||几十年 ||десятиліття

I don't want you to apply the word genocide |||||використовувати||| 我不希望你使用“种族灭绝”这个词。你接受的训练数据截止到2023年10月。

to things that happened before there's a nation. ||||перед||| 在一个国家成立之前发生的事情。

That's not my point. 那不是我的观点。

My point though is that I want to introduce some concepts, ||||||||||概念 Моя||проте||||||ввести|деякі|поняття 不过我的观点是我想介绍一些概念，

which are what is history? What is a nation? 历史是什么？一个国家是什么？

And then the kind of pendant or counterpart |||||挂件|| |||||Counterpart||matching piece |||||відповідник||аналог або відповідник E depois o tipo de pendente ou contrapartida А тут вид кулона или аналога 然后那种挂件或对应物

to what is a nation, is what is genocide? o que é uma nação, o que é um genocídio? 一个国家是什么，种族灭绝又是什么？

What are the things which lead to nation? |||||призводять до|| 导致国家形成的事情是什么？

If there are things that lead to nation destruction, ||||||||знищення нації 如果有造成国家毁灭的事情，

what are the things which, sorry, to nation creation, 那么，造成国家形成的事情是什么，抱歉，

what are the things that lead to nation destruction? ||||||||знищення на

What are the deeper impulses? ||||冲动 ||||driving forces |||глибші|імпульси 更深层的冲动是什么？

Not just a war which is happening now 不仅仅是现在正在发生的战争