Class 8. Early Jews of Modern Ukraine (2) Klasse 8. Frühe Juden der modernen Ukraine (2) Classe 8. Les premiers Juifs de l'Ukraine moderne (2) クラス8近代ウクライナの初期ユダヤ人 (2) Klas 8. Vroege Joden in het moderne Oekraïne (2) Klasa 8. Wcześni Żydzi współczesnej Ukrainy (2) Aula 8. Judeus primitivos da Ucrânia moderna (2) Занятие 8. Ранние евреи современной Украины (2) Sınıf 8. Modern Ukrayna'nın Erken Dönem Yahudileri (2) 第八课 现代乌克兰的早期犹太人（2）

and then there are historians who completely deny it,

who think this whole thing was a myth

and that all these sources are forged. ||||||gefälscht ||||||counterfeit or fake ||||||підроблені

Your reading was Dan Shapiro's article. ||||沙皮罗| ||||Dan Shapiro's| 您閱讀的是丹‧夏皮羅的文章。

It's probably the best article we have on the origins of, 這可能是我們關於起源的最好的文章，

you know, Jewish presence in the Ukrainian lands. 你知道，猶太人在烏克蘭土地上存在。

He kind of, he contradicts himself. |||er|| ||||goes against| ||||矛盾している| ||||суперечить| 他有點自相矛盾。

He kind of does both. 他兩者都做。

On the first page you'll notice he says, 在第一頁你會注意到他說，

"There was no Jewish elite that converted," you know, ||||||converted|| 「沒有猶太精英皈依，」你知道，

"in the Khazar kingdom,"

and then, three three pages later, he's quoting it. |||||||zitiert| і|||||||цитує| 然後，三三頁後，他引用了這句話。

He's citing it. |er zitiert| |Quoting it.| |цитує|

He's mentioning it,

and if you look at the footnote, ||||||脚注(1) ||||||reference note ||||||виноска(1)

he says that Pritzak's book on this, |||普里查克的|||

which goes through a lot of these sources, 它經歷了很多這樣的來源，

is complete nonsense,

and I could write a whole book, you know,

that contains all the mistakes in this work, |includes||||||

and then, those three pages later, he's quoting Pritzak, ||||||||普里察克 然後，在那三頁之後，他引用了普利扎克的話，

so, you know, we're all over the place with this, Wir sind also in dieser Sache völlig aufgeschmissen, 所以，你知道，我們對此很感興趣，

and I think part of the problem is it's been politicized ||||||||||政治化 ||||||||||politisiert ||||||||||politicized ||||||||||політизовано

because if you are an anti-Zionist, ||||||犹太复国主义者 |||||anti|Zionist ||||||シオニスト反対者 ||||||сіоніст 因為如果你是反猶太復國主義者

it becomes very interesting, 它變得非常有趣，

the possibility that actually Jews didn't originate in, ||||||originated| ||||||походили| 猶太人實際上並非起源於的可能性

you know, ancient Israel.

They originated in Khazaria, |||可萨 他們起源於可薩裡亞，

and this is something that the early Zionists |||||||犹太复国主义者 |||||||сіоністи

are actually having to contend with, ||||sich auseinanderset| ||||deal with| ||||対処しなければならない| ||||боротися| 實際上必須應對，

and so really, every anti-Zionist 所以說真的，每一個反猶太復國主義者

gets very excited about this possibility, 對這種可能性感到非常興奮，

and, of course, every Zionist historian 當然，還有每位猶太復國主義歷史學家

is very interested in refuting ||||反驳 ||||widerlegen ||||disproving ||||反論することに興味がある ||||спростуванні 很有興趣反駁

even the existence of a Jewish presence in this kingdom, 甚至這個王國裡有猶太人的存在，

so Shaul Stampfer recently published an article |沙乌尔|斯坦普fer|||| 所以 Shaul Stampfer 最近發表了一篇文章

in which he went through all these sources 他在其中瀏覽了所有這些來源

and showed they were all complete fabrications and nonsense, ||||||虚构|| ||||||falsehoods|| ||||||でっち上げ|| 並表明它們完全是捏造和胡說八道，

and that's where we are,

so I can't say anything for sure about the Khazar kingdom 所以我不能肯定地說關於可薩王國的事情

other than, I don't know,

maybe where there's smoke there's fire. vielleicht||||| |if|||| |煙のある所|||| 或許有煙的地方就有火。

That may be the best that we can do. 這可能是我們能做的最好的事了。

There might have been some indication |||||ознака 可能已經有一些跡象

of a Jewish presence there among certain elites, 猶太人存在於某些精英之中，

but we're on more solid ground |||||ground 但我們有更堅實的基礎

when we get into Kyivan Rus, 當我們進入基輔羅斯時

and here's a map.

I watched a few of Professor Snyder's YouTube videos, ||||||斯奈德|| 我看了一些斯奈德教授的 YouTube 視頻，

and I noticed he didn't use a lot of maps, 我注意到他沒有使用很多地圖

so here's a good opportunity to see what it looks like. 所以這是一個很好的機會來看看它是什麼樣子的。

Anybody know what the Golden Horde is? |||||Mongol military group| |||||Золота Орда| 有人知道金帳汗國是什麼嗎？

Yeah, what's the Golden,

well, not asking the grad students going- ||||graduate students|| 好吧，不是要求研究生去-

- Mongols. 蒙古人 Mongols

- What?

- The Mongols. - Mongols, right?

Do, you know, why it's called the Golden Horde? ||||||||Horda 你知道為什麼它被稱為金帳汗國嗎？

Their battle tents were gold, ||as de guerra|| ||戦闘用テント|| |бійцівські|намети||

and so that's how they got this name,

and I don't think it's pejorative, |||||abwertend |||||derogatory term |||||軽蔑的な |||||пейоративне en ik denk niet dat het pejoratief is,

but I'm not 100% sure,

so that's the Mongols over there,

and we have Jewish presence is really on an axis, |||||||||axis |||||||||осі 我們有猶太人的存在確實在一個軸上，

kind of a diagonal axis running through Kyiv, |||slanted|||| |||діагональна|||| 一種穿過基輔的對角軸，

and I looked at a map of trade routes, 我看了一張貿易路線地圖

and sure enough,

it's towns along a trade route leading into Hungary, ||||||||Угорщина

and that's how the Jewish presence is determined there. und so wird die jüdische Präsenz dort bestimmt. 這就是猶太人在那裡的存在的方式。

It's an unstable existence, you know, ||precarious||| 這是一種不穩定的存在，你知道，

and it's not very permanent,

and you find little tiny mentionings here and there.

It's not a sizeable Jewish presence there at all. |||可观的||||| |||significant||||| 那裡根本沒有大量猶太人存在。

Where it's gonna get much bigger

is when the Grand Duchy of Lithuania comes into the picture 立陶宛大公國登場的時候

and effectively colonizes these areas. ||殖民|| 並有效地殖民這些地區。

Now, the Jews are temporarily expelled. |||||ausgewiesen |||||removed from place 現在，猶太人被暫時驅逐。

Some link it to the expulsion of Jews from Spain. |||||驱逐|||| |||||Vertreibung|||| |||||removal|||| 有些人將其與西班牙驅逐猶太人聯繫起來。

I guess it was a copycat expulsion. |||||模仿者| |||||Nachahmung| |||||imitation-based| |||||模倣退学|追放 我猜這是一次模仿驅逐。

That's what you read sometimes,

but then, when he changes his mind a few years later, 但幾年後當他改變主意時

it's revoked under the same monarch, |widerrufen||||Monarchen |canceled by|||| 它在同一個君主的統治下被撤銷，

and now you have approximately 4,000 Jews 現在大約有 4,000 名猶太人

in 24 Ukrainian towns. 分佈在 24 個烏克蘭城鎮。

That doesn't sound like a whole lot. Das|||||| 這聽起來並不是很多。

It's a frontier kind of existence ||pioneering||| Es ist eine Art von Existenz an der Grenze

where we find evidence of Jews

actually taking part in the defense of these towns, 實際上參與了這些城鎮的保衛工作

which are under a lot of pressure from Tatars, especially. 尤其是，他們承受著來自韃靼人的巨大壓力。

They're learning to shoot. |||fire a gun 他們正在學習射擊。

They're doing even military exercises. 他們甚至正在進行軍事演習。

It's not your typical image 這不是你典型的形象

of East European Jews, 東歐猶太人，

so it's kind of interesting, 所以這有點有趣

but they do manage to survive, 但他們確實設法生存下來

and it becomes safer and safer 並且變得越來越安全

as the Grand Duchy of Lithuania 作為立陶宛大公國

really sort of concretizes its presence there, |||具体化||| |||veranschaulicht||| |||solidifies||| |||具体化する||| 確實有點具體化了它的存在，

and then you start to have more Jews moving in, 然後你開始有更多的猶太人搬進來，

and that's where we are, really,

with our knowledge about these areas. 憑藉我們對這些領域的了解。

I mean, there's not a whole lot more, 我的意思是，沒有更多了，

and we're kind of just about up to the point і ми майже дійшли до того. 我們差不多就到此為止了

where you are in the... 你在哪裡...

I think we're past the point that you are chronologically, |||||||||按时间顺序 |||||||||時系列的に 我認為我們已經過了按時間順序排列的時間點

so now we're gonna go beyond that a little bit 所以現在我們要超越這一點

for the next 100 years or so, 在接下來的100年左右的時間裡，

and this is where Poland, 這就是波蘭，

Crown Poland is gonna come into the picture, |ポーランド||||||登場する 波蘭皇冠將會出現在畫面中，

and I really call this colonization full-fledged |ich|||||vollständig|vollständig |||||||fully developed |||||||完全な 我真的稱這種殖民化為成熟的

because it is kind of a big land grab. |||||eine|||Landnahme ||||||||seize control of 因為這是一種大的土地掠奪。

You know, you have Polish nobles, petty nobles, |||||Adelige|| ||||||minor| ||||||mesquinhos| 你知道，有波蘭貴族，小貴族，

magnates, these large landholders, |||土地拥有者 Magnaten||| wealthy landowners|||landowners

coming in and just grabbing up as much territory ||||seizing|||| 進來並搶佔盡可能多的領土

as they possibly can.

It's the result of the actual agreement 這是實際協議的結果

called the Union of Lublin ||||卢布林 ||||Lublin ||||ルブリン 稱為盧布林聯盟

whereby the threat of Russia is such wobei|||||| その結果|||||| 俄羅斯的威脅是這樣的

that Lithuania kind of accedes to this agreement, ||||同意||| ||||beitritt||| ||||agrees to||| ||||同意する||| dat Litouwen zich als het ware bij deze overeenkomst aansluit, 立陶宛同意這項協議，

which seems to really benefit the Poles. 這似乎對波蘭人確實有利。

It's almost like a protection agreement, it seems like,

and you'll probably learn a lot more about it,

but for our purposes today,

those Polish nobles are going to bring Jews in

to settle their towns and to run their enterprises, |establish|||||||businesses

and this is what it looks like,

so the dark gold parts 所以暗金色部分

are what the Grand Duchy of Lithuania is,

and these other parts are Poland,

and this comes to be known

as the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, 作為波蘭立陶宛聯邦，

and by 1648,

you go from 4,000 to 40,000 Jews

living in 115 Ukrainian towns,

and, you know, that colonizing activity 而且，你知道，殖民活動

is very good for the Jews

because they have these economic possibilities.

They're still not allowed to own land,

but what they do is

they begin leasing the various enterprises. ||die Vermietung||| ||renting out|||

Now, I'm gonna put a question to you.

Why is leaseholding, ||賃貸契約 ||a propriedade arrendada

like, leasing a tavern or a mill, ||||||grinding facility ||||||製粉所

better, from the Jewish perspective, than owning it?

And I'll give you a big hint. ||||||clue 我會給你一個重要的提示。

They're leasing it from the all-powerful nobility. 他們是從全能的貴族那裡租來的。

Any ideas why it's better to lease than to own? 你知道為什麼租賃比擁有更好嗎？

Yeah.

- You have the protection of the nobles. - 你有貴族的保護。

- You got it right away. - 你馬上就明白了。

It's you have the protection the nobles.

Nobody is going to burn down a tavern 沒有人會燒毀小酒館

if it belongs to the noblemen, |||||贵族

but as, I mentioned before, you know,

Jews are in a very physically vulnerable situation,

so this leaseholding arrangement 所以這個租賃安排

is actually very beneficial to Jews

because they get noble protection,

at least from that standpoint. ||||Standpunkt 至少從這個角度來看。

They're also being taxed pretty mercilessly, |||||gnadenlos |||imposed taxes||without compassion |||||容赦なく |||||sem piedade 他們還被無情地徵稅，

and the nobles don't want their best taxpayers |||||||tax-paying citizens 貴族們不想要最好的納稅人

to be, you know, physically assaulted either, |||||攻击| |||||attacked physically| 你知道，受到身體攻擊，

so it's not the most stable situation, 所以這不是最穩定的情況

but it's one of, it's good enough.

You know, they have Polish protection.

Now, what's in it for the nobility? Why Jews? Und was hat der Adel davon? Warum Juden? 那麼，對於貴族來說，這有什麼用呢？為什麼是猶太人？

And I'll give you another hint. 我會給你另一個提示。

It's not because they like Jews. 這並不是因為他們喜歡猶太人。

In fact, it's very much the opposite, 事實上，情況恰恰相反，

so why would you invite Jews in 那你為什麼要邀請猶太人進來

to lease your various enterprises? 租賃您的各個企業？

Any ideas?

Yeah?

- Maybe so you can, like, keep your eye on them, - Можливо, для того, щоб ви могли стежити за ними, - 也許這樣你就可以，例如，關注他們，

make sure that they're not doing

anything you don't want them to be doing.

- For sure.

I mean, there's a lot of control involved as well,

but okay, yeah?

- Wasn't moneylending sort of like unbelief? |||||Unglauben |||||lack of faith |||||descrença - Чи не було лихварство чимось на кшталт невіри? - 放債不是有點像不信嗎？

- Okay, good, so it's not quite true. - Okay, gut, das ist also nicht ganz richtig.

You know, you do have actual banks, at a certain point, 你知道，在某個時候你確實有真正的銀行，

the nobles can borrow from, 貴族可以藉用，

but there are a lot of hoops to jump through, ||||||Hürden||| ||||||obstacles||| ||||||多くの障害||| ||||||obstáculos||| 但還有很多障礙需要跨越

and Jews represent easy credit, 猶太人代表輕鬆的信用，

you know, and you're in a socially superior position |||||||上位の| 你知道，而且你處於社會優越地位

to your creditor, ||lender or creditor ||債権者に対して 給你的債權人，

so that becomes very tempting, 所以這變得非常誘人，

and Jews are involved very much in moneylending,

and it's funny because what I base a lot of this on 這很有趣，因為我的許多基礎都是基於的

is an article, a series of articles by Shmuel Ettinger. ||||||||舒穆尔|埃廷格 是一篇文章，是 Shmuel Ettinger 的一系列文章。

They're in Hebrew,

so most of you wouldn't have access to them, 所以你們中的大多數人都無法接觸到它們

but they're the most, I would say, 但我想說的是，他們是最多的

full information about this time period and this place, 有關該時間段和該地點的完整信息，

and he spends a lot of pages trying to argue

that Jews really weren't that involved in moneylending, 猶太人確實不參與放債，

but then he contradicts himself too. 但他也自相矛盾。

I think moneylending has a bad image, 我認為放債的形像不好

but the fact of the matter is 但事實是

people needed credit, you know, 人們需要信用，你知道，

and this is where they could get it, for the most part, 在大多數情況下，這是他們可以得到它的地方，

so yes, moneylending's a big part of it. ||放贷|||||

Anything else about Jews 關於猶太人的其他事情

that makes them attractive as leaseholders? |||||租户 |||||Mietern 這使他們作為承租人具有吸引力？

Yeah?

- Does it have something to do with the fact that - 這與以下事實有關係嗎？

because they're just,

they can't enter other industries or they can't own land, 他們不能進入其他產業或不能擁有土地，

then there's guarantee that they'll serve that role or that- 然後就可以保證他們會擔任這個角色或-

- Very much so.

I would call it a captive service sector. |||||gefangener|| Ich würde es einen firmeneigenen Dienstleistungssektor nennen. 我稱之為專屬服務部門。

You know, they don't have a lot of options. 你知道，他們沒有太多選擇。

Yeah.

- Because they're not necessarily - 因為它們不一定

paying a tithe to the church, ||Zehnt||| ||church donation||| ||教会への献金||| ||dízimo||| 向教會繳納什一稅，

maybe they're (indistinct) be a good source of tax revenue. 也許它們（模糊地）是稅收收入的良好來源。

Is that- - Okay,

so that's a complicated question. 所以這是一個複雜的問題。

Yes, they're great source of tax revenue, 是的，它們是稅收收入的重要來源，

but believe me, they're paying more taxes than anybody. 但相信我，他們繳的稅比任何人都多。

They're paying taxes to the crown, 他們向國王納稅，

and we'll go into that a little bit. 我們會稍微討論一下。

They don't pay tithe to the church. 他們不向教會繳什一稅。

That's actually an interesting point 這實際上是一個有趣的點

that I haven't thought about a lot, ||||||あまり多く 我還沒有考慮很多

so that's a great point, 所以這是一個很好的觀點，

but they're paying so many other ways, 但他們透過很多其他方式付款

including to their own communities, 包括他們自己的社區，

and I'm not, it probably offsets, but absolutely. |||||抵消|| |||それは||オフセット|| 我不是，它可能會抵消，但絕對是。

Now, one thing

nobody thought of yet is politics. 還沒有人想到政治。

No matter how wealthy 不管多有錢

your Jewish leaseholder is going to become, ||房东|||| ||賃借人|||| 你的猶太承租人將會成為，

and some of them really do quite well by this system, 他們中的一些人確實透過這個系統做得很好，

they're never gonna be a political threat to you, okay? 他們永遠不會對你構成政治威脅，好嗎？

And I can add other things, business acumen, |||||||Geschäftsverständnis |||||||business insight |||||||ビジネス感覚 |||||||perspicácia Und ich kann noch andere Dinge hinzufügen, Geschäftssinn, 我還可以添加其他東西，商業頭腦，

you know, historically involved in trade. 你知道，歷史上參與貿易。

Where they came from was

Western and Central Europe,

especially the German- and Czech-speaking lands,

and in those areas,

they worked as merchants a lot of the time

until they were pushed out by the townspeople. |||||||Stadtbewohner |||||||町の住民によって 直到被鎮上的人趕了出去。

They're also being pushed out ||||追い出される

of parts of Poland proper, we could call it, Crown Poland, 波蘭本土的部分地區，我們可以稱之為“波蘭王冠”，

by the same Christian townspeople, and they're moving. ||||local residents||| 由同一個基督教鎮民所為，他們正在搬家。

They're being pushed into these areas, ||forced into||| 他們被推到這些地區，

so it's actually, 所以實際上是

it's a great boon to the Jews |||恩惠||| |||Segen||| |||Great benefit||| |||大きな恩恵||| 這對猶太人來說是一個巨大的恩惠

who are losing opportunities in one place 誰在一個地方失去了機會

to be able to come to another place, 能夠來到另一個地方，

but, of course, this is all a colonial scheme, ||||||||colonial plan 但是，當然，這都是殖民計劃，

so it's volatile. ||unstable ||ボラティリティ 所以它是不穩定的。

It's dangerous, you know.

Jews are running these leases, ||||rental agreements

but, you know, they're not very popular with the peasants ||||||||その| 但是，你知道，他們不太受農民歡迎

who are now being enserfed, ||||奴役 ||||unterjocht ||||being subjugated as 誰が||||農奴化されている die nu tot slaaf worden gemaakt, 現在正在被奴役的人，

and this is like a second serfdom, it's called, ||||||农奴制|| ||||||second-class status|| ||||||農奴制|| 這就像第二個農奴制，它被稱為，

and so there we have 所以我們有

Augustine's rule being violated 奥古斯丁的||| 奧古斯丁的規則被違反

because they're in a position of superiority 因為他們處於優勢地位

to the surrounding peasants 給週邊的農民

by running these taverns and mills and tolls and so on. |||||||Zölle||| |||||gristmills||fees for passage||| |||||||通行料||| 透過經營這些酒館、磨坊和通行費等等。

It becomes a real problem. 這成為一個真正的問題。

It becomes intolerable. ||unerträglich ||unbearable ||耐えられなくなる 它變得難以忍受。

Now, this is the reason they're not allowed to own land 現在，這就是他們不被允許擁有土地的原因

because if they own land, 因為如果他們擁有土地

they're gonna be lording it directly over peasants |||统治|||| 他們將直接統治農民

who are farmers, essentially, and that's intolerable. 他們本質上是農民，這是無法容忍的。

It just, the optics are too bad, |||光学||| |||Öffentlichkeitswirkung||| |||perception||| ||その|||| 就是光學太差了

but to run a tavern and a mill and so on, 但要經營一家小酒館和一家磨坊等，

that's seen as okay 這看起來沒問題

except from the perspective of the peasants, 除了從農民的角度來看，

who really experience this in a negative way, obviously, 顯然，他們確實以消極的方式經歷過這一點，

and, you know, we have a volatile system, ||||||易失性| 而且，你知道，我們有一個不穩定的系統，

but it's held in place

as long as the Polish nobility is in power, |||||aristocracy||| 只要波蘭貴族掌權，

and here's the thing. 事情是這樣的。

The nobility doesn't want the headache |||||Kopfschmerzen 貴族不想頭痛

of collecting taxes directly from these Jews. 直接向這些猶太人徵稅。

Plus, they can't be trusted to, Additionally||||| |彼らは|||| Außerdem kann man ihnen das nicht zutrauen, 另外，他們不能被信任，

you know, pay their taxes, 你知道，繳稅，

and they all seem to have the same name, 而且他們似乎都有相同的名字，

like Yitzchak ben Moshe and so on. |以撒||摩西||| |Isaac||Moshe's son||| 像伊扎克·本·摩西等等。

You know, there's like 17 of them in one town, 你知道，一個城鎮裡大約有 17 個這樣的人，

and so what they do is they entrust the Jewish communities, |||||||委托||| |||||||vertrauen||| |||||||delegate to||| 所以他們所做的就是委託猶太社區，

first Jewish tax collectors, specifically, |||税收员| 第一個猶太稅吏，具體來說，

and then the kahals, which is the Jewish self-government, |||卡哈尔|||||| |||Kahal|||||| |||Jewish council|||||| |||カハール|||||| 然後是 kahals，即猶太自治政府，

to collect the taxes for them, 為他們收稅，

and in the process, they're giving the kahal... |||||||卡哈尔 |||||||the community 在這個過程中，他們給了卡哈…

I guess you'd compare it to a municipality. |||||||Gemeinde |||||||local government |||||||自治体 我想你會把它比喻成一個市政府。

They're giving the kahals complete autonomy, almost, 他們幾乎給了卡哈爾完全的自治權，

to run daily affairs, |||business operations

to manage the garbage collection and keep the streets clean 管理垃圾收集並保持街道清潔

and try to make sure

people don't encroach on each other's leases, ||侵占|||| ||eindringen in|||| ||violate boundaries||||property agreements ||侵害する|||| ||invadem|||| 人們不會侵占彼此的租約，

and they manage the educational system, in addition||||| 他們管理教育系統，