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Crash Course, Phonology: Crash Course Linguistics #10

Phonology: Crash Course Linguistics #10

Hi, I'm Taylor and welcome to Crash Course Linguistics!

Could you get me a glass of water?

What if I asked for waTer, like some people, but certainly not me, pronounce it?

For other people, that /t/ in the middle of the word can become ‘wa-a'.

Our brains treat these different sounds as equivalent.

It's still liquid H2O whether you pronounce it wadder, waTer, or wa-a.

This isn't just true for /t/ — all of the sounds or handshapes of a language can be produced differently depending on the context.

Different languages and accents have their own variation.

These patterns, and the study of them, is known as phonology.

[THEME MUSIC]

When we first start to pay attention to phonology, it's like trying to see the trick in an optical illusion.

We need to learn a different way of paying attention, which can involve looking closely at what our bodies are physically doing or using external tools to measure it.

It's like when you cross your eyes or drag an optical illusion into a photo editor to prove that two grays are really the same color.

But unlike optical illusions, phonology is different for each of us depending on which languages we were exposed to at a young age.

As babies, we're not attached to any one phonological system.

So a baby that's been hearing only English for a few months can still hear all the subtle differences in pronunciation that might matter in a different language context.

But we lose this ability as we get older and start only paying attention to certain languages.

So phonological distinctions that may be obvious for some people might seem minute or impossible to distinguish for others.

We can see how ingrained a phonology is when people learn another language, because they'll use the sounds they already recognize.

An American English speaker like me learning Hindi might use /t/ when learning to say "chutney” instead of a retroflex /ʈ/ “chutney”.

It might still be recognizable to a Hindi speaker, but it won't sound the same.

Before we get further along in this discussion, we need to talk about sound.

Linguists use the word sound to refer to two different concepts, and have come up with distinct terms for each of them.

On the one hand, linguists use the word sound to refer to any difference that's relevant for any language.

For example, “wadder” and “waTer” mean the same thing in English, so the distinction between these sounds isn't relevant for English speakers.

But for Spanish speakers there's an important difference between the same two sounds:

it creates new words, like paro, which means, "I stop" and pato, which means "duck."

Linguists call this non-language-specific distinction a phone and write these symbols in square brackets.

On the other hand, linguists also use “sound” to refer to any difference that is relevant or meaningful for forming different words in only a specific language.

In English, that would include the sounds /t/ and /d/, since they're the difference between “rabbit” and “rabid.”

But it wouldn't include the different ways you could pronounce the "t" in the middle of "water".

Linguists call this language-specific distinction a phoneme and write these symbols in slashes.

Let's play this out with another English example.

Try putting your hand up in front of your mouth as you say "team" or "tall".

Now try saying "steam" and "stall".

You may not be able to hear the difference, but you can feel it on your hand — there's an extra burst of air when you say “team,” but not when you say “steam.”

That puff of air is called aspiration.

In English, there's no meaningful difference between the aspirated [tʰ] as in "team" and unaspirated [t] as in "steam."

They both sound like “t” to English speakers, even though, as you just felt, they aren't exactly the same.

In linguistic terms, we say that these two phones are part of the same phoneme in English.

Specifically, we say that aspirated [tʰ] and unaspirated [t] are allophones of the same phoneme in English.

They're technically different, but English speakers think of them as the same sound.

But in some languages, there is a meaningful difference between these two sounds.

In Nepali, unaspirated [tal] means ‘lake' while aspirated [tʰal] means plate.

You need to be able to tell the difference so your lunch doesn't get soggy.

Because the distinction between [t] and [tʰ] is meaningful to Nepali speakers, we say that these two sounds are different phonemes in Nepali.

So, in Nepali, aspirated [tʰ] and unaspirated [t] are both different phones AND different phonemes.

In English, these same sounds are different phones, but they're NOT different phonemes.

Now, despite the etymology of ‘phone' as sound, signed languages also have their own phonologies,

with some handshapes, movements, locations, and orientations for signs that are relevant in some signed languages and not others.

For example, an extended ring finger is a meaningful handshape in Taiwainese Sign Language but not in BSL or ASL.

Let's go into the Thought Bubble to observe some phonemes in their natural environment.

To think about how two different sounds can be allophones of the same phoneme, let's compare them to a rabbit.

The snowshoe hare specifically.

It looks like a regular cute brown rabbit most of the year, and then in the winter its brown fur changes to white.

Even across different seasons, a snowshoe hare is the same rabbit —

it lives in the same hole, it's still recognized by its baby rabbits, and it still munches on all the veggies it can find.

But sometimes it shows up as a brown rabbit, and it sometimes shows up as a white rabbit.

If we were wildlife observers, we'd want to pay very close attention to when these versions appear before we conclude that they're the same animal.

After all, in other places, there are rabbits that are brown or white all year round.

So if we see both a white and a brown rabbit in summer and in winter, we actually have two different rabbits.

We can write out our observation of the snowshoe hare in three parts.

The first is what we're starting with: one rabbit, of no specified color.

The second is what changes: the rabbit's fur color.

And the third is the environment where that change happens: whether it's winter.

From this, we have two rules:

the first one describes how the rabbit changes to white when it's winter

and the second one describes how the rabbit changes to brown when it's not winter.

We can make observations like this about sounds in a language, to determine whether we're dealing with a phoneme with two allophones,

like a color-changing rabbit, or two different phonemes, like two differently colored rabbits.

Thanks, Thought Bubble!

The difference in meaning between unaspirated [tal] and aspirated [thal] in Nepali is like seeing a brown and a white rabbit at the same time —

we know that they have to be distinct species, or phonemes.

In English, we know there isn't a difference in meaning between words that have the aspirated /th/ and the unaspirated [t].

Also, when looking at single-syllable words, we hear these two sounds in the same places each time.

The unaspirated [t] always occurs after an s or at the end of a word, while the aspirated /th/ always occurs at the beginning of a word.

That's like seeing the white rabbit in the winter and the brown rabbit in the summer — the different versions of /t/ appear in predictable environments.

That's how we prove that these two sounds are allophones of one phoneme.

Based on these observations, we can write a rule for English that says a /t/ is pronounced without an aspiration after an /s/

and with aspiration at the beginning of a word.

Linguists write them out with this notation, using an arrow from the underlying form /t/ to what's changed about it, like aspiration,

and a slash mark between the sound change and the environment, like being at the beginning of the word.

By the way, this hash mark represents a word boundary — you can think of it as like a visible version of the space between words.

We can use the hash mark to indicate whether a sound is at the beginning or end of a word.

The notation is a short form that lets us keep track of the many phonological rules in each language.

It's like training our brains to see the optical illusion--to see pattern in language like a linguist.

/t/ isn't the only English consonant that follows this rule.

Other consonants, like /p/ and /k/, also have no aspiration after an /s/.

Linguists call this category of consonants voiceless stops, and can create a general rule:

voiceless stops become aspirated at the beginning of a word.

We could keep going with more rules in English and other languages, like the /t/ in English water, but let's zoom out and take a look at the big picture instead.

There are some common phonological processes that we see happening across different languages.

While all languages have phonologies, the processes in signed languages have not been studied in as much detail.

So sometimes the categories for spoken language don't quite fit for signed languages.

Phones that are produced one after the other can sometimes become more similar, which makes it easier to produce a word or phrase.

When speaking quickly, many English speakers will say ‘handbag' as ‘hambag.'

Changing /nd/ to /m/ shifts the sound to the lips so it's now a bilabial like /b/, which makes them easier to say together.

This phonological process is known as assimilation.

Assimilation in signed languages can affect the handshape or sign location.

The Auslan sign for ‘name' is typically made at the head.

When it's used in the phrase ‘my name' it's often performed lower, perhaps near the cheek, because it's following the ‘my' sign at the chest.

Phones can also become more distinct when we produce them.

The English word ‘venom' used to be ‘venin.'

But the two /n/ sounds so close together didn't sit well with medieval English speakers, who changed the second one to /m/.

Many English speakers do the same with cardamom, or maybe cardamon, today.

Linguists call this phonological process dissimilation.

Phones can sometimes be added in to break up a difficult string of sounds or signs.

You might hear people adding a /p/ in ‘hamster', or notice the extra vowel Rhianna uses to make ‘umbrella' into 4 syllables.

This phonological process is known as insertion or epenthesis.

We can sometimes see a movement insertion between signs.

When counting in Auslan people often add a little movement of the hand between each number.

Phones can also be removed.

We have even made this part of the English writing system with contractions like ‘I've', ‘it's' and ‘can't'.

Sometimes sounds are removed from the middle of words too, like /i/ in ‘family'.

This phonological process is known as deletion or elision.

In Auslan, the sign for ‘girl' includes a repetition of the movement, but in conversation the repetition can be deleted.

And finally, phones can switch around.

The Old English word for third' was thrid, but English speakers switched the ‘i' and ‘r' around--although they didn't in ‘three'.

This process is also why we have ‘aks' as well as ‘ask'.

In fact, at various points in history ‘aks' has been the more common pronunciation.

This phonological process is known as metathesis.

In ASL, the sign for ‘deaf' shows metathesis.

The standard form is ear to mouth, but it can also be performed going from mouth to ear.

These processes either make it easier for us to produce words and phrases or help our audience understand them.

Over time, they're part of what drives changes in a language.

It can be challenging to retrain your brain from the phonological patterns it's used to, but phonological rules are important.

They help synthesised speech technology like Siri sound more natural, and help us be more sympathetic language speakers and learners.

An appreciation for phonology is useful whatever your environment.

Thanks for watching this episode of Crash Course Linguistics, which is produced by Complexly and PBS.

So 2020 has been... bad.

PBS has a new show called Self-Evident that explores how we've been persevering in this supremely weird year.

It's hosted by historian Danielle Bainbridge from Origin of Everything and therapist Ali Mattu, who you might know from The Psych Show.

Because who better than a historian and a therapist to help guide us through ALL of this.

Self-Evident is part of PBS American Portrait, a massive storytelling project involving thousands of people around the country.

Subscribe to PBS Voices for Self-Evident and other great shows, and tell them Crash Course sent you!

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Phonology: Crash Course Linguistics #10 Фонология|Крушение курса лингвистики||Фонология: Курс лингвистики Sound system analysis|Phonology overview basics|Phonology lesson|Sound patterns study Fonologia||| 音韵学||| علم الأصوات||| 音韻論||| Fonología||| Phonologie: Crashkurs Linguistik #10 Φωνολογία: Φωνολογία: Crash Course Linguistics #10 Phonology: Crash Course Linguistics #10 Fonología: Crash Course Linguistics #10 Phonologie : Cours accéléré de linguistique #10 Fonologia: Corso accelerato di linguistica #10 音韻論クラッシュコース言語学 #10 음운론: 단기 코스 언어학 #10 Fonologija: Lingvistikos kursas #10 Fonologie: Spoedcursus taalkunde #10 Fonologia: Crash Course Linguistics #10 Fonologia: Linguística do Curso de Crash #10 Фонология: Краткий курс лингвистики №10 Fonologi: Crashkurs i lingvistik #10 Fonoloji: Crash Course Linguistics #10 Фонологія: Прискорений курс лінгвістики #10 音系学:语言学速成班 #10 音系學:語言學速成班 #10

Hi, I'm Taylor and welcome to Crash Course Linguistics! ||Тейлор||||||Лингвистика |||along with|glad you're here||||Language study ||Taylor|||||| ||Taylor||||Olá, eu sou Taylor e bem-vindo ao Curso Intensivo de Linguística!||Linguística Hi, I'm Taylor and welcome to Crash Course Linguistics! Olá, chamo-me Taylor e sejam bem-vindos ao Crash Course Linguistics!

Could you get me a glass of water? |you|||||| poderia||conseguir||||| Pode trazer-me um copo de água? Можешь мне принести стакан воды?

What if I asked for waTer, like some people, but certainly not me, pronounce it? ||||||||||безусловно|||произносить| |||||Wasser||||||||| |||||water|||people|yet||not me||pronounce it|it |||||água|||||certamente|||| Was wäre, wenn ich nach "waTer" fragen würde, wie es manche Leute, aber sicher nicht ich, aussprechen? What if I asked for waTer, like some people, but certainly not me, pronounce it? E se eu pedisse waTer, como algumas pessoas, mas certamente não eu, o pronunciam? А что, если я попрошу водУ, как это делают некоторые люди, но конечно, не я?

For other people, that /t/ in the middle of the word can become ‘wa-a'. |||||||середина слова||||||ва-а| ||||||the||possessive particle||||turn into|| |||||||||||||wa| ||||/t/|||||||||| For other people, that /t/ in the middle of the word can become ‘wa-a'. Для других людей эта /t/ в середине слова может стать 'ва-а'.

Our brains treat these different sounds as equivalent. ||воспринимают|||||эквивалентный |cervelli||||sounds||equal |||||||equivalent |||||||等同的 Unsere Gehirne behandeln diese unterschiedlichen Klänge als gleichwertig.

It's still liquid H2O whether you pronounce it wadder, waTer, or wa-a. |||||||||вода|||| It is||water|||if or not|||||||| |||||se|||||||| |||||||||acqua|||| |||||||||水|||| |||||||||水|||| Continua a ser H2O líquido, quer se pronuncie wadder, waTer ou wa-a.

This isn't just true for /t/ — all of the sounds or handshapes of a language can be produced differently depending on the context. |||||||||||формы рук||||||||||| |||||||||||手の形||||||||||| |||||||of||||||||||||||| |||||||||||forme della mano||||||||||| |||||||||||手型|||||是|||||| Isto não se aplica apenas ao /t/ - todos os sons ou formas de mãos de uma língua podem ser produzidos de forma diferente consoante o contexto.

Different languages and accents have their own variation. |||акценты|||| |||||||variação Verschiedene Sprachen und Akzente haben ihre eigenen Varianten. As diferentes línguas e sotaques têm as suas próprias variações. Різні мови та акценти мають свої варіації.

These patterns, and the study of them, is known as phonology. |шаблоны||||||||| |padrões||||||||| ||||||||||音韵学 Estes padrões, e o seu estudo, são conhecidos como fonologia.

[THEME MUSIC]

When we first start to pay attention to phonology, it's like trying to see the trick in an optical illusion. ||||||||фонология||||||||||оптический|иллюзия ||||||||||||||||||óptica|ilusão ||||||||||||||||||视觉的|幻觉 Wenn wir uns zum ersten Mal mit der Phonologie beschäftigen, ist es, als würden wir versuchen, den Trick in einer optischen Täuschung zu erkennen. Quando começamos a prestar atenção à fonologia, é como tentar ver o truque de uma ilusão de ótica.

We need to learn a different way of paying attention, which can involve looking closely at what our bodies are physically doing or using external tools to measure it. ||||||||||||включать в себя|||||||||||||||| ||||||||||||||||||||||||зовнішніми|||| ||||||||||||||atentamente|||||||||||||| ||||||||||||||||||||||||外部|||| Wir müssen eine andere Art der Aufmerksamkeit erlernen, die darin bestehen kann, genau hinzuschauen, was unser Körper tut, oder externe Hilfsmittel einzusetzen, um dies zu messen. We need to learn a different way of paying attention, which can involve looking closely at what our bodies are physically doing or using external tools to measure it. Precisamos de aprender uma forma diferente de prestar atenção, que pode implicar olhar atentamente para o que o nosso corpo está a fazer fisicamente ou utilizar ferramentas externas para o medir. Мы должны научиться другому способу внимания, который может включать в себя пристальное наблюдение за тем, что физически делает наше тело, или использование внешних инструментов для измерения.

It's like when you cross your eyes or drag an optical illusion into a photo editor to prove that two grays are really the same color. ||||||||перетащить||||||||||||||||| ||||||||||||||||||||灰色の色||||| |||||||||||||||editor|||||||||| ||||||||拖动||||||||||||灰色||||| Das ist so, als würde man die Augen schielen oder eine optische Täuschung in ein Bildbearbeitungsprogramm ziehen, um zu beweisen, dass zwei Grautöne wirklich dieselbe Farbe sind. É como quando cruzamos os olhos ou arrastamos uma ilusão de ótica para um editor de fotografias para provar que dois cinzentos são realmente da mesma cor.

But unlike optical illusions, phonology is different for each of us depending on which languages we were exposed to at a young age. |||иллюзии восприятия||||||||||||||||||| |||错觉||||||||||||||||||| Aber anders als bei optischen Täuschungen ist die Phonologie bei jedem von uns anders, je nachdem, welchen Sprachen wir in jungen Jahren ausgesetzt waren. Mas, ao contrário das ilusões de ótica, a fonologia é diferente para cada um de nós, dependendo das línguas a que fomos expostos em tenra idade.

As babies, we're not attached to any one phonological system. |младенцы||||||||системе ||||||||音韻の| ||somos||||||| ||||||||音位的| Enquanto bebés, não estamos ligados a nenhum sistema fonológico.

So a baby that's been hearing only English for a few months can still hear all the subtle differences in pronunciation that might matter in a different language context. |||||||||||||||||细微的||||||||||| |||||||||||||||||sutis||||||||||| |||||||||||||||||тонкие|различия в произношении|||||||||| Assim, um bebé que tenha ouvido apenas inglês durante alguns meses pode ainda ouvir todas as diferenças subtis na pronúncia que podem ser importantes num contexto linguístico diferente.

But we lose this ability as we get older and start only paying attention to certain languages. ||||способность|||||||||||| Mas perdemos esta capacidade à medida que envelhecemos e começamos a prestar atenção apenas a determinadas línguas.

So phonological distinctions that may be obvious for some people might seem minute or impossible to distinguish for others. |фонологические|различия|||||||||||||||| ||||||||||||||||tell apart|| ||distinções||||||||||||||distinguir|| ||||||||||||geringfügig|||||| ||区分||||||||||微小|||||| ||||||||||||незначні||||розрізнити|| ||区別||||||||||微細な|||||| Assim, as distinções fonológicas que podem ser óbvias para algumas pessoas podem parecer mínimas ou impossíveis de distinguir para outras.

We can see how ingrained a phonology is when people learn another language, because they'll use the sounds they already recognize. ||||укоренившийся|||||||||||||||| ||||Deeply embedded|||||||||||||||| ||||enraizado||||||||||eles|||||| ||||verankert|||||||||||||||| ||||根深蒂固||语音学|||||||||||||| ||||根付いた|||||||||||||||| Podemos ver como uma fonologia está enraizada quando as pessoas aprendem outra língua, porque usam os sons que já reconhecem.

An American English speaker like me learning Hindi might use /t/ when learning to say "chutney” instead of a retroflex /ʈ/ “chutney”. |||||||||||||||чатни||||обратный|| |||||||||||||||||||反り舌音|| |americano||||||||||||||chutney|||||| |||||||||||||||酸辣酱||||卷舌|| Een Amerikaans-Engelse spreker zoals ik die Hindi leert, kan /t/ gebruiken om "chutney" te zeggen in plaats van een retroflex /ʈ/ "chutney". Um falante de inglês americano como eu a aprender hindi pode usar /t/ quando aprende a dizer "chutney" em vez de um retroflexo /ʈ/ "chutney".

It might still be recognizable to a Hindi speaker, but it won't sound the same. |||||||хинди||||||| ||||認識できるかもしれない|||||||||| ||||reconhecível|||||||||| Poderá ainda ser reconhecível para um falante de hindi, mas não terá o mesmo som.

Before we get further along in this discussion, we need to talk about sound. Antes de avançarmos nesta discussão, temos de falar sobre o som.

Linguists use the word sound to refer to two different concepts, and have come up with distinct terms for each of them. Лингвисты||||||||||||||||отдельные||||| ||||||||||||||||окремі||||| linguistas||||||||||||||||distintos|som|||| |||||||||||||||||术语|||| Taalkundigen gebruiken het woord geluid om naar twee verschillende concepten te verwijzen en hebben voor elk van hen verschillende termen bedacht. Os linguistas utilizam a palavra som para se referirem a dois conceitos diferentes e criaram termos distintos para cada um deles.

On the one hand, linguists use the word sound to refer to any difference that's relevant for any language. ||||лингвисты||||||обозначать|||||значимый для языка||| |||||||||||||||relevante||| |||||||||||||||相关的||| Por um lado, os linguistas usam a palavra som para se referirem a qualquer diferença que seja relevante para qualquer língua.

For example, “wadder” and “waTer” mean the same thing in English, so the distinction between these sounds isn't relevant for English speakers. |||||||||||||различие между звуками||||||||

But for Spanish speakers there's an important difference between the same two sounds: But for Spanish speakers there's an important difference between the same two sounds:

it creates new words, like paro, which means, "I stop" and pato, which means "duck." |||||я останавливаюсь||||||утка|||утка |||||パロ||||||アヒル||| |||||我停止||||||鸭子||| cria novas palavras, como paro, que significa "eu paro" e pato, que significa "pato".

Linguists call this non-language-specific distinction a phone and write these symbols in square brackets. ||||||||音素||||符号|||方括号 |||||||||||||||角括弧 linguistas||||||||||||||| ||||||||||||||квадратные скобки|квадратные скобки Os linguistas chamam a esta distinção não específica da língua um telefone e escrevem estes símbolos entre parênteses rectos.

On the other hand, linguists also use “sound” to refer to any difference that is relevant or meaningful for forming different words in only a specific language. |||||||声音||||||||||||||||||| |||||||||||||||||||formar||||||| Por outro lado, os linguistas também usam "som" para se referirem a qualquer diferença que seja relevante ou significativa para formar palavras diferentes apenas numa língua específica.

In English, that would include the sounds /t/ and /d/, since they're the difference between “rabbit” and “rabid.” |||||||||||||||кролик||бешеный |||||||||||||||||狂犬病の |||||||||||||||||rábido |||||||||||||||||狂犬病的

But it wouldn't include the different ways you could pronounce the "t" in the middle of "water". Mas não incluiria as diferentes formas de pronunciar o "t" no meio de "water".

Linguists call this language-specific distinction a phoneme and write these symbols in slashes. |||||||фонема||||||косые черты |||||||||||||phonetic symbol markers |||||||音素||||||スラッシュ記号 |||||||音素||||||斜杠 Linguists call this language-specific distinction a phoneme and write these symbols in slashes. Os linguistas chamam a esta distinção específica da língua um fonema e escrevem estes símbolos com barras.

Let's play this out with another English example. Vamos jogar isto com outro exemplo inglês.

Try putting your hand up in front of your mouth as you say "team" or "tall". |||||||||||||команда||высокий Tente colocar a mão à frente da boca quando diz "team" ou "tall".

Now try saying "steam" and "stall". |||пар**||задержка |||||停滞 Agora tenta dizer "steam" e "stall".

You may not be able to hear the difference, but you can feel it on your hand — there's an extra burst of air when you say “team,” but not when you say “steam.” ||||||||||||||||||||всплеск воздуха|||||||||||| ||||||||||||||||||||explosão||||||||||||

That puff of air is called aspiration. |порыв воздуха|||||придыхание ||||||気息音 ||||||aspiração de ar |气 puff|||||吸气 A essa lufada de ar chama-se aspiração.

In English, there's no meaningful difference between the aspirated [tʰ] as in "team" and unaspirated [t] as in "steam." ||||||||送气的||||||不送气的||||蒸汽 ||||||||有気音の|有気音の[tʰ]|||||無気音|||| ||||||||aspirado||||||não aspirado|||| ||||||||аспирированный|||||||||| Em inglês, não há diferença significativa entre o [tʰ] aspirado, como em "team", e o [t] não aspirado, como em "steam".

They both sound like “t” to English speakers, even though, as you just felt, they aren't exactly the same. Ambos soam como "t" para os falantes de inglês, embora, como acabou de sentir, não sejam exatamente iguais.

In linguistic terms, we say that these two phones are part of the same phoneme in English. ||术语||||||||||||音位||

Specifically, we say that aspirated [tʰ] and unaspirated [t] are allophones of the same phoneme in English. ||||送气的||||||音位变体|||||| ||||||||||異音|||||| ||||||||||алофони одного фонеми|||||| ||||||||||аллофоны|||||| Especificamente, dizemos que aspirado [tʰ] e não aspirado [t] são alofones do mesmo fonema em inglês.

They're technically different, but English speakers think of them as the same sound. São tecnicamente diferentes, mas os falantes de inglês pensam neles como o mesmo som.

But in some languages, there is a meaningful difference between these two sounds.

In Nepali, unaspirated [tal] means ‘lake' while aspirated [tʰal] means plate. |尼泊尔语|不送气||||||||盘子 |ネパール語で||湖|||||タール|| Em nepalês, não aspirado [tal] significa "lago", enquanto aspirado [tʰal] significa prato.

You need to be able to tell the difference so your lunch doesn't get soggy. |||||||||||午餐|||湿透的 ||||||||||||||trempé ||||||||||||||wet and soft ||||||||||||||розмоклим É preciso saber distinguir para que o almoço não fique empapado.

Because the distinction between [t] and [tʰ] is meaningful to Nepali speakers, we say that these two sounds are different phonemes in Nepali. ||||||||||尼泊尔语||||||||||音位||

So, in Nepali, aspirated [tʰ] and unaspirated [t] are both different phones AND different phonemes.

In English, these same sounds are different phones, but they're NOT different phonemes.

Now, despite the etymology of ‘phone' as sound, signed languages also have their own phonologies, |||词源学|||||||||||音系 |||語源|||||||||||音韻体系

with some handshapes, movements, locations, and orientations for signs that are relevant in some signed languages and not others. ||手型||||方向|||||||||||| ||||||向き||||||||||||

For example, an extended ring finger is a meaningful handshape in Taiwainese Sign Language but not in BSL or ASL. |||伸展的||手指|||||||手势|||||英国手语||美国手语 |||||||||手の形||台湾手話||||||英国手話||アメリカ手話 |||||||||||||||||Британский жестовый язык||Американский жестовый язык Een verlengde ringvinger is bijvoorbeeld een betekenisvolle handvorm in Taiwanese gebarentaal, maar niet in BSL of ASL. Por exemplo, um dedo anelar estendido é uma forma de mão significativa na língua gestual taiwanesa, mas não na BSL ou ASL.

Let's go into the Thought Bubble to observe some phonemes in their natural environment. |||||||||音素||||

To think about how two different sounds can be allophones of the same phoneme, let's compare them to a rabbit.

The snowshoe hare specifically. |кроссовка|| |raquette à neige|lièvre| |スノーシューウサギ|| ||a lebre| A lebre-das-neves, especificamente.

It looks like a regular cute brown rabbit most of the year, and then in the winter its brown fur changes to white. Na maior parte do ano, parece um coelho castanho normal e bonito, mas no inverno o seu pelo castanho muda para branco.

Even across different seasons, a snowshoe hare is the same rabbit — |||||雪鞋兔|雪鞋兔||||

it lives in the same hole, it's still recognized by its baby rabbits, and it still munches on all the veggies it can find. ||||||||||||||||жует||||||| ||||||||||||||||croque||||||| ||||||||||||||||むしゃむしゃ食べる||||||| ||||||||||||||||啃食||||蔬菜||| vive no mesmo buraco, continua a ser reconhecido pelos seus coelhos bebés e continua a comer todos os legumes que encontra.

But sometimes it shows up as a brown rabbit, and it sometimes shows up as a white rabbit. Mas às vezes aparece como um coelho castanho e outras vezes como um coelho branco.

If we were wildlife observers, we'd want to pay very close attention to when these versions appear before we conclude that they're the same animal. |||野生动物||||||||||||||||||||| Se fôssemos observadores da vida selvagem, quereríamos prestar muita atenção ao momento em que estas versões aparecem antes de concluirmos que se trata do mesmo animal.

After all, in other places, there are rabbits that are brown or white all year round. Afinal, noutros locais, há coelhos que são castanhos ou brancos durante todo o ano.

So if we see both a white and a brown rabbit in summer and in winter, we actually have two different rabbits.

We can write out our observation of the snowshoe hare in three parts. |||||||||雪鞋兔||| ||||||||snowshoe hare|||| Podemos escrever a nossa observação da lebre-das-neves em três partes.

The first is what we're starting with: one rabbit, of no specified color. |||||||||||指定的| |||||||||||指定された| O primeiro é aquele com que começamos: um coelho, de cor não especificada.

The second is what changes: the rabbit's fur color. ||||||ウサギの|| A segunda é o que muda: a cor do pelo do coelho.

And the third is the environment where that change happens: whether it's winter. E a terceira é o ambiente em que essa mudança ocorre: se é inverno.

From this, we have two rules:

the first one describes how the rabbit changes to white when it's winter a primeira descreve como o coelho muda para branco quando é inverno

and the second one describes how the rabbit changes to brown when it's not winter.

We can make observations like this about sounds in a language, to determine whether we're dealing with a phoneme with two allophones, |||||||||||||||||||||音位变体 Podemos fazer observações como esta sobre os sons de uma língua, para determinar se estamos a lidar com um fonema com dois alofones,

like a color-changing rabbit, or two different phonemes, like two differently colored rabbits. ||||||||音素||||| como um coelho que muda de cor, ou dois fonemas diferentes, como dois coelhos de cores diferentes.

Thanks, Thought Bubble! Obrigado, Bolha de Pensamento!

The difference in meaning between unaspirated [tal] and aspirated [thal] in Nepali is like seeing a brown and a white rabbit at the same time — |||||||||||尼泊尔语||||||||||||| |||||||||タルとタール|||||||||||||||

we know that they have to be distinct species, or phonemes. ||||||||||音位 ||||||||види||

In English, we know there isn't a difference in meaning between words that have the aspirated /th/ and the unaspirated [t]. |||||||||||||||送气的|||||

Also, when looking at single-syllable words, we hear these two sounds in the same places each time. |||||слог|||||||||||| |||||音节|||||||||||| Além disso, quando olhamos para palavras monossilábicas, ouvimos estes dois sons sempre nos mesmos sítios.

The unaspirated [t] always occurs after an s or at the end of a word, while the aspirated /th/ always occurs at the beginning of a word. |不送气||||||||||||||||||||||||| |||||||||||||||||aspirada|||||||||

That's like seeing the white rabbit in the winter and the brown rabbit in the summer — the different versions of /t/ appear in predictable environments. |||||||||||||||||||||||可预测的| É como ver o coelho branco no inverno e o coelho castanho no verão - as diferentes versões de /t/ aparecem em ambientes previsíveis.

That's how we prove that these two sounds are allophones of one phoneme. |||||||||音位变体|||

Based on these observations, we can write a rule for English that says a /t/ is pronounced without an aspiration after an /s/

and with aspiration at the beginning of a word.

Linguists write them out with this notation, using an arrow from the underlying form /t/ to what's changed about it, like aspiration, ||||||符号||||||||||||||| ||||||||||||sous-jacent||||||||| |||||||||points to change|||||||||||| Os linguistas escrevem-nas com esta notação, usando uma seta da forma subjacente /t/ para o que mudou nela, como a aspiração,

and a slash mark between the sound change and the environment, like being at the beginning of the word.

By the way, this hash mark represents a word boundary — you can think of it as like a visible version of the space between words. ||||решетка|||||||||||||||||||| ||||dièse|||||||||||||||||||| |||||||||межа слова||||||||||||||| ||||井号|||||||||||||||||||| Já agora, esta marca de hash representa um limite de palavra - pode pensar nela como uma versão visível do espaço entre palavras.

We can use the hash mark to indicate whether a sound is at the beginning or end of a word. ||||井号|||||||||||||||

The notation is a short form that lets us keep track of the many phonological rules in each language. ||||||||||||||音位的|规则||| A notação é uma forma abreviada que nos permite manter um registo das muitas regras fonológicas de cada língua.

It's like training our brains to see the optical illusion--to see pattern in language like a linguist. ||||||||||||padrão|||||

/t/ isn't the only English consonant that follows this rule. |||||согласная|||| |||||辅音|||| O /t/ não é a única consoante inglesa que segue esta regra.

Other consonants, like /p/ and /k/, also have no aspiration after an /s/. |согласные||||||||||| |辅音|||||||||||

Linguists call this category of consonants voiceless stops, and can create a general rule: ||||||无声|||||||

voiceless stops become aspirated at the beginning of a word. as paragens sem voz tornam-se aspiradas no início de uma palavra.

We could keep going with more rules in English and other languages, like the /t/ in English water, but let's zoom out and take a look at the big picture instead. Podíamos continuar a falar de mais regras em inglês e noutras línguas, como o /t/ em inglês water, mas vamos fazer um zoom out e ver o panorama geral.

There are some common phonological processes that we see happening across different languages. ||||音韵的|过程|||||||

While all languages have phonologies, the processes in signed languages have not been studied in as much detail. Embora todas as línguas tenham fonologias, os processos nas línguas de sinais não foram estudados com tanto pormenor.

So sometimes the categories for spoken language don't quite fit for signed languages. |||类别||||||||| Por isso, por vezes, as categorias da língua falada não se adequam às línguas gestuais.

Phones that are produced one after the other can sometimes become more similar, which makes it easier to produce a word or phrase. Os fones que são produzidos um após o outro podem, por vezes, tornar-se mais semelhantes, o que facilita a produção de uma palavra ou frase.

When speaking quickly, many English speakers will say ‘handbag' as ‘hambag.' ||||||||||дамская сумка ||||||||||ハンドバッグをハンバッグ ||||||||||手提包 Ao falar rapidamente, muitos falantes de inglês dirão "handbag" como "hambag".

Changing /nd/ to /m/ shifts the sound to the lips so it's now a bilabial like /b/, which makes them easier to say together. ||||||||||||||двугубный||||||||| ||||||||||||||両唇音||||||||| ||||змінює||||||||||||||||||| ||||||||||||||双唇音||||||||| Mudar o /nd/ para /m/ desloca o som para os lábios, sendo agora uma bilabial como o /b/, o que torna mais fácil dizê-los juntos.

This phonological process is known as assimilation. ||||||同化

Assimilation in signed languages can affect the handshape or sign location. A assimilação nas línguas de sinais pode afetar o formato da mão ou a localização do sinal.

The Auslan sign for ‘name' is typically made at the head. |австралийский жестовый язык||||||||| |手話||||||||| |澳大利亚手语|||||||||头部 O sinal Auslan para "name" é normalmente feito à cabeça.

When it's used in the phrase ‘my name' it's often performed lower, perhaps near the cheek, because it's following the ‘my' sign at the chest. |||||||||||||||щека||||||||| |||||||||||||||脸颊||||||||| Quando é usado na frase "my name", é muitas vezes executado mais abaixo, talvez perto da bochecha, porque está a seguir ao sinal "my" no peito.

Phones can also become more distinct when we produce them. Os telemóveis também podem tornar-se mais distintos quando os produzimos.

The English word ‘venom' used to be ‘venin.' |||毒液|||| |||毒液は以前||||毒液 |||отрута||||отрута |||||||яд A palavra inglesa "venom" costumava ser "venin".

But the two /n/ sounds so close together didn't sit well with medieval English speakers, who changed the second one to /m/. Mas os dois sons /n/ tão próximos um do outro não agradaram aos falantes do inglês medieval, que mudaram o segundo para /m/.

Many English speakers do the same with cardamom, or maybe cardamon, today. |||||||小豆蔻|||小豆蔻| |||||||カルダモン|||カルダモン| Veel Engelstaligen doen tegenwoordig hetzelfde met kardemom, of misschien kardemom. Muitos falantes de inglês fazem o mesmo com cardamomo, ou talvez cardamon, atualmente.

Linguists call this phonological process dissimilation. |||||диссимиляция |||||異化作用 |||||异化

Phones can sometimes be added in to break up a difficult string of sounds or signs. |||||||||||字符串|||| |||||||||||音の列|||| |||||||||||sequência difícil|||| Os telefones podem, por vezes, ser acrescentados para interromper uma sequência difícil de sons ou sinais.

You might hear people adding a /p/ in ‘hamster', or notice the extra vowel Rhianna uses to make ‘umbrella' into 4 syllables. ||||||||||||||||||||音节 ||||||||ハムスター||||||リアーナ|||||| Poderá ouvir pessoas a acrescentar um /p/ em 'hamster', ou reparar na vogal extra que a Rhianna usa para transformar 'umbrella' em 4 sílabas.

This phonological process is known as insertion or epenthesis. ||||||插入||插入 ||||||挿入||挿入またはエペンテシス ||||||||эпентеза Dit fonologische proces staat bekend als insertie of epenthesis.

We can sometimes see a movement insertion between signs.

When counting in Auslan people often add a little movement of the hand between each number. Ao contar em Auslan, as pessoas acrescentam frequentemente um pequeno movimento da mão entre cada número.

Phones can also be removed.

We have even made this part of the English writing system with contractions like ‘I've', ‘it's' and ‘can't'. ||||||||||||сокращения||||| ||||||||||||短縮形||||| ||||||||||||缩写|||||

Sometimes sounds are removed from the middle of words too, like /i/ in ‘family'.

This phonological process is known as deletion or elision. ||||||省略||省略 ||||||elision||omission or deletion ||||||削除||省略 ||||||||элизия

In Auslan, the sign for ‘girl' includes a repetition of the movement, but in conversation the repetition can be deleted. |澳大利亚手语||||||||||||||||||

And finally, phones can switch around. E, finalmente, os telemóveis podem ser trocados.

The Old English word for third' was thrid, but English speakers switched the ‘i' and ‘r' around--although they didn't in ‘three'. |||||||第三|||||||||||||| |||||||三番目|||||||||||||| A palavra em inglês antigo para "third" era "thrid", mas os falantes de inglês trocaram o "i" e o "r" - embora não o tenham feito em "three".

This process is also why we have ‘aks' as well as ‘ask'. |||||||アクス|||| Este processo é também a razão pela qual temos 'aks' e 'ask'.

In fact, at various points in history ‘aks' has been the more common pronunciation.

This phonological process is known as metathesis. ||||||音位倒置 ||||||転置現象 Dit fonologische proces staat bekend als metathese.

In ASL, the sign for ‘deaf' shows metathesis. |||||||metáteses Na ASL, o sinal para 'surdo' mostra metatese.

The standard form is ear to mouth, but it can also be performed going from mouth to ear. A forma padrão é de orelha a boca, mas também pode ser efectuada de boca a orelha.

These processes either make it easier for us to produce words and phrases or help our audience understand them. Estes processos facilitam-nos a produção de palavras e frases ou ajudam o nosso público a compreendê-las.

Over time, they're part of what drives changes in a language. Ao longo do tempo, são parte do que impulsiona as mudanças numa língua.

It can be challenging to retrain your brain from the phonological patterns it's used to, but phonological rules are important. |||||переобучить|||||||||||||| |||||再訓練する|||||||||||||| |||||重新训练||||||||||||||

They help synthesised speech technology like Siri sound more natural, and help us be more sympathetic language speakers and learners. ||синтезированную|||||||||||||сочувствующий|||| ||合成された|||||||||||||共感的な|||| ||sintetizada||||||||||||||||| ||合成的||||||||||||||||| Ajudam a tecnologia de fala sintetizada, como a Siri, a soar mais natural e ajudam-nos a ser mais simpáticos aos falantes e aprendentes de línguas.

An appreciation for phonology is useful whatever your environment. O gosto pela fonologia é útil em qualquer ambiente.

Thanks for watching this episode of Crash Course Linguistics, which is produced by Complexly and PBS. |||||||||||||Complexly|| |||||||||||||コンプレックスリー||PBS

So 2020 has been... bad.

PBS has a new show called Self-Evident that explores how we've been persevering in this supremely weird year. |||||||очевидный||||||упорный||||| |||||||||||||耐え抜く|||極めて|| |||||||显而易见||||||坚持不懈|||极其|| A PBS tem um novo programa chamado Self-Evident que explora a forma como temos vindo a perseverar neste ano extremamente estranho.

It's hosted by historian Danielle Bainbridge from Origin of Everything and therapist Ali Mattu, who you might know from The Psych Show. ||||丹妮尔|贝恩布里奇||||||治疗师||马图|||||||心理| ||||ダニエル|ベインブリッジ||||||||マットゥ||||||||

Because who better than a historian and a therapist to help guide us through ALL of this.

Self-Evident is part of PBS American Portrait, a massive storytelling project involving thousands of people around the country. |显而易见||||||肖像||||||||||| |明白な|||||||||物語作り||||||||

Subscribe to PBS Voices for Self-Evident and other great shows, and tell them Crash Course sent you!