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Crash Course Philisophy 17-46, Metaethics: Crash Course Philosophy #32

Metaethics: Crash Course Philosophy #32

Is it wrong to steal to feed your family?

Is there such a thing as a good lie?

Questions like these are the domain of ethics – the branch of philosophy that studies morality, or right and wrong behavior.

But before we can parse questions like these, we need to go deeper – into metaethics, which studies the very foundations of morality itself.

Metaethics asks questions as basic as: what is morality?

What's its nature?

Like, is it an objective thing, out there in the world, waiting to be known?

Or is it more like a preference, an opinion, or just a bunch of cultural conventions?

There are lots of different metaethical views out there.

And one way to understand them is to put them to a test to see how they'd help you solve some thorny ethical problems.

Like a scenario where you have to steal food or lie for a good cause.

Or what about this: What if you set out to harm someone, but you ended up saving their life by accident?

[Theme Music]

Some people think that ethics is a kind of science, that it seeks to discover moral truths, whose existence is testable and provable.

But others believe the nature of morality is every bit as subjective as whether you prefer plain M&Ms;, or peanut. There's just no right answer.

Unless you have a peanut allergy.

So, you and your friend might totally agree on whether something is immoral or not, but you might disagree fervently about why.

For an example of a slippery moral scenario, let's just head straight over to the Thought Bubble for some Flash Philosophy.

A burglar plots to break into an old woman's house on a Sunday morning, a time when he knows she's always at church.

So one Sunday, he creeps up to her back window, and smashes it with a hammer.

But, after he looks inside, he sees that the old woman isn't at church.

She's in there, laying face-down on the floor.

The sight of her body scares the burglar, and he runs away.

He was down for a little bit of burglary, but getting nabbed for murder was NOT part of his plan.

But what the burglar didn't know was that the old woman wasn't dead.

She was unconscious, having passed out because of a carbon monoxide leak that would have killed her.

When the burglar broke the window, he let out some of the toxic gas, and let in fresh air, which allowed her to regain consciousness.

So, the burglar broke into the house with the intention of stealing from the woman, but, inadvertently, he saved her life.

Did the burglar do a good thing?

Does he deserve praise, even though he didn't intend to help the woman?

Likewise, does he still deserve blame, even though he didn't actually get around to stealing anything, and ended up saving the woman's life?

Thanks Thought Bubble!

Your answers to these questions will help you suss out where your moral sensibilities lie.

And why you answer the way you do will say a lot about what metaethical view you subscribe to.

One of the most widely held metaethical views is known as Moral Realism, the belief that there are moral facts, in the same way that there are scientific facts.

In this view, any moral proposition can only be true, or false.

And for a lot of us, our gut intuition tells us that there are moral facts.

Some things are just wrong, and others are indisputably right.

Like, a lot of people think that gratuitous violence is always wrong, and nurturing children is always right – no matter what.

But, you don't have to dig very deep into moral realism before you run into trouble.

Like for one thing, if there are moral facts, where do they come from?

How do we know what they are?

Are they testable, like scientific facts are?

Are they falsifiable?

And, if morality is based on facts, then why is there so much disagreement about what's moral and what's not, as opposed to science, where there's often more consensus?

This is what's known as the grounding problem.

The grounding problem of ethics is the search for a foundation for our moral beliefs, something solid that would make them true in a way that is clear, objective, and unmoving.

If you can't find a way to ground morality, you might be pushed toward another metaethical view: Moral Antirealism.

This is the belief that moral propositions don't refer to objective features of the world at all – that there are no moral facts.

So a moral anti-realist would argue that there's nothing about gratuitous violence that's inherently wrong.

Likewise, they'd say, if you look at the rest of the animal kingdom, sometimes nurturing your kids doesn't seem like it's that important.

So, maybe morality isn't the same for everyone.

But still, most people you know – including yourself – are committed to some form of moral realism.

And there are MANY forms.

So let's familiarize ourselves with some of its most popular flavors.

Some moral realists are Moral Absolutists.

Not only do they believe in moral facts, they believe there are some moral facts that don't change.

So, for them, if something is wrong, it's wrong regardless of culture or circumstance.

Moral facts apply as universally and as constantly as gravity or the speed of light.

If moral absolutism sounds too rigid, maybe Moral Relativism would appeal to you.

This view says that more than one moral position on a given topic can be correct.

And one of the most common forms of moral relativism is cultural relativism.

But there are actually two different things a person might mean when they talk about cultural relativism.

The more general kind is Descriptive Cultural Relativism.

This is simply the belief that people's moral beliefs differ from culture to culture.

No one really disputes that – it seems obviously true.

Like, some cultures believe that capital punishment is morally right, and other cultures believe it's morally wrong – that killing another human is inherently unethical.

But there's also Normative Cultural Relativism, which says that it's not our beliefs, but moral facts themselves that differ from culture to culture.

So in this view, capital punishment is morally correct in some cultures and is morally wrong in others.

Here, it's the moral fact of the matter that differs, based on culture.

Now, normative cultural relativism might sound pretty good to you; it does at first to a lot of people.

Because it seems like it's all about inclusiveness and tolerance.

Who am I to tell other cultures how they should live, right?

But this view actually has some pretty big flaws.

If every culture is the sole arbiter of what's right for it, that means no culture can actually be wrong.

It means Nazi culture actually was right, for the people living in that culture.

A dissenting German voice in, say, 1940, would have just been wrong, if it had claimed that Jewish people deserved to be treated the same as other Germans.

And what makes things even weirder is that, if normative cultural relativism is true, then the concept of moral progress doesn't make sense, either.

If what everyone is doing right now is right, relative to their own culture, then there's never any reason to change anything.

Problems like these make some people take a second look at the antirealist stance, which, remember, is the view that there just aren't any moral facts.

Just one flavor of moral antirealism is Moral Subjectivism.

This view says that moral statements can be true and false – right or wrong – but they refer only to people's attitudes, rather than their actions.

By this thinking, capital punishment is neither right nor wrong, but people definitely have preferences about it.

And those preferences key into personal attitudes, but not into actual, objective moral facts about the world.

Like, some people favor capital punishment, and think it's just.

Others oppose it and think it's unjust.

But it doesn't go any deeper than that.

There are no moral facts, only moral attitudes.

There are other varieties of both moral realism and antirealism, but this should give you an idea of the general, metaethical lay of the land.

And by now, it probably seems like I've given you a lot more problems than solutions.

So let's talk about the moral frameworks you'll use to navigate your way through all of these moral mazes.

These frameworks are known as ethical theories.

They're moral foundations that help you come up with consistent answers about right and wrong conduct.

All ethical theories have some kind of starting assumptions, which shouldn't be surprising, because really all of our beliefs rest on some basic, assumed beliefs.

For instance, natural law theory, which we'll study soon, relies on the starting assumption that God created the universe according to a well-ordered plan.

While another ethical theory, known as utilitarianism, relies on the starting assumption that all beings share a common desire to seek pleasure and avoid pain.

The starting assumptions of a theory can lead us to other beliefs, but if you reject those initial assumptions, the rest of the theory just doesn't follow.

Now, in addition to starting assumptions, ethical theories also consist of Moral Principles, which are the building blocks that make up the theories.

And these principles can be shared between more than one theory.

For instance, many ethical theories agree on the principle that it's wrong to cause unjustified suffering.

Some ethical theories hold the principle that any unjustified killing is wrong – and that includes animals – while other theories hold the principle that it's only wrong to unjustifiably kill humans.

But the thing about ethical theories is that most people don't identify with just one.

Instead, most people identify with principles from several theories that help them form their own moral views.

We're going to be spending several weeks learning about these ethical theories, and you'll probably find elements of some that you already believe, and others that you definitely disagree with.

But all of this accepting and rejecting will help you develop a new way to talk about – and think about – what are, for now, your gut moral intuitions.

Today we talked about metaethics.

We discussed three forms of moral realism and we learned the difference between descriptive and normative cultural relativism.

We also learned about moral subjectivism, which is a form of moral antirealism.

And we introduced the concept of an ethical theory.

Next time we're going to learn about the ethical theory known as the Divine Command Theory.

Crash Course Philosophy is produced in association with PBS Digital Studios.

You can head over to their channel and check out a playlist of the latest episodes from shows like:

Physics Girl, Shanks FX, and PBS Space Time.

This episode of Crash Course Philosophy was filmed in the Doctor Cheryl C. Kinney Crash Course Studio

with the help of all of these awesome people and our equally fantastic graphics team is Thought Cafe.

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Metaethics: Crash Course Philosophy #32 Metaethik: Crashkurs Philosophie #32 Metaética: Crash Course Philosophy #32 Métaéthique : Cours accéléré de philosophie n°32 Metaetica: Corso accelerato di filosofia #32 메타윤리: 크래시 코스 철학 #32 Metaetyka: Crash Course Philosophy #32 Metaética: Curso Rápido de Filosofia #32 Метаэтика: Краткий курс философии №32 Metaetik: Crash Course Philosophy #32 Метаетика: Прискорений курс філософії #32 元伦理学:哲学速成班#32

Is it wrong to steal to feed your family? هل السرقة من أجل إطعام عائلتك أمرٌ خاطئ؟ Is het verkeerd om te stelen zodat je je familie te eten kan geven? É errado roubar para alimentar sua família?

Is there such a thing as a good lie? هل يوجد مايسمى بالكذبة الجيدة؟ Bestaat er zoiets als een goede leugen? Existe "boa mentira"?

Questions like these are the domain of ethics – the branch of philosophy that studies morality, or right and wrong behavior. تقع تلك الأسئلة ضمن نطاق فلسفة الأخلاق -وهي من فروع الفلسفة التي تدرس الأخلاقيات، أو السلوك الجيد والسيئ. Vragen als deze behoren tot het domein van de ethiek - de tak van de filosofie die moraliteit bestudeert, of goed en fout gedrag. Perguntas como estas estão no domínio da ética - o ramo da filosofia que estuda a moralidade, ou a conduta certa ou errada.

But before we can parse questions like these, we need to go deeper – into metaethics, which studies the very foundations of morality itself. لكن وقبل أن نحلل أسئلة كتلك؛ نحن بحاجة إلى التعمق أكثر في فلسفة مابعد الأخلاق -التي تدرس القواعد الأساسية للأخلاق ذاتها. Maar voor we vragen als deze kunnen ontleden, moeten we dieper gaan - richting de meta-ethiek, die de fundamenten van de moraliteit bestudeert. Mas antes que possamos analisar questões como essas, precisamos ir mais fundo - na metaética, que estuda os próprios fundamentos da moralidade.

Metaethics asks questions as basic as: what is morality? فتسأل فلسفة مابعد الأخلاق أسئلةً أساسية مثل: ماهي الأخلاق؟ De meta-ethiek stelt vragen zo fundamenteel als: wat is moraliteit? Metaética faz perguntas básicas como: o que é a moralidade?

What's its nature? وما طبيعتها؟ Wat is haar natuur? Qual é a sua natureza?

Like, is it an objective thing, out there in the world, waiting to be known? هل هي شيء مجرد في هذا العالم بانتظار الإشارة إليه؟ Is het een objectief iets, bestaand in de wereld, wachtend om opgemerkt te worden? Tipo, é algo objetivo, lá fora no mundo, à espera de ser conhecido?

Or is it more like a preference, an opinion, or just a bunch of cultural conventions? أم هل هي بمثابة تفضيلات أو آراء معينة، أو ربما مجموعة أعرافٍ ثقافية؟ Of is het eerder een voorkeur, een mening, of gewoon een verzameling culturele conventies? Ou é mais como uma preferência, uma opinião, ou apenas um monte de convenções culturais?

There are lots of different metaethical views out there. توجد الكثير من التوجهات لفلسفة مابعد الأخلاق في هذا العالم. Er zijn heel wat verschillende meta-ethische visies. Há muitos diferentes pontos de vista metaéticos por aí.

And one way to understand them is to put them to a test to see how they'd help you solve some thorny ethical problems. والسبيل الوحيد لفهمها هو بوضعها في اختبار لنرى كيف ستساعدنا على حل بعض من المشاكل الأخلاقية الشائكة. En een manier om hen te begrijpen is om na te gaan hoe ze je zouden helpen om uit enkele netelige ethische situaties te geraken. E uma maneira de compreendê-los é testá-los para ver como eles te ajudariam a resolver alguns problemas éticos espinhosos.

Like a scenario where you have to steal food or lie for a good cause. كموقف تضطر فيه لسرقة طعام أو الكذب من أجل سبب وجيه. Zoals een scenario waarbij je eten moet stelen, of moet liegen voor een goed doel. Como um caso onde você tenha que roubar comida ou mentir por uma boa causa.

Or what about this: What if you set out to harm someone, but you ended up saving their life by accident? أو .. ماذا عن هذا الموقف: ماذا لو خططت لإلحاق الضرر بأحدهم لكن الأمر انتهى بك إلى انقاذه عن غير قصد؟ Of wat hiermee: Wat als je iemand schade wil berokkenen, maar zodoende per ongeluk hun leven redt? Ou que tal esse: E se você armou para prejudicar alguém, mas acabou salvando sua vida por acidente?

[Theme Music] [موسيقى الخلفية] [Muziek] [Tema musical]

Some people think that ethics is a kind of science, that it seeks to discover moral truths, whose existence is testable and provable. يعتقد البعض أن الأخلاق نوع من العلوم، وأنه يسعى لاكتشاف الحقائق الأخلاقية، التي من ممكن اختبار وإثبات وجودها. Sommige mensen zien ethiek als een soort wetenschap, die naar morele waarheden zoekt wiens bestaan toetsbaar en bewijsbaar is. Algumas pessoas pensam que a ética é uma espécie de ciência, que procura descobrir as verdades morais, cuja existência é testável e demonstrável.

But others believe the nature of morality is every bit as subjective as whether you prefer plain M&Ms;, or peanut. بينما يعتقد آخرون أن طبيعة الأخلاق شخصية تمامًا، كمسألة تفضيلك لحلوى إم أند إمز بالشوكولاتة أو الفول السوداني. Maar anderen geloven dat de de aard van moraliteit net zo subjectief is als of je gewone M&M;'s of die met pinda verkiest. Mas outros acreditam que a natureza da moralidade é tão subjetiva como sua preferência por M&Ms; ou amendoins. There's just no right answer. حيث لاتوجد لها إجابة صحيحة فحسب. Er is gewoon geen juist antwoord. Simplesmente não há resposta certa.

Unless you have a peanut allergy. ما لم تكن تُعاني من حساسية الفول السوداني بالطبع! Tenzij je allergisch bent voor pinda's. A menos que você tenha alergia a amendoim.

So, you and your friend might totally agree on whether something is immoral or not, but you might disagree fervently about why. فقد تتفق تمامًا مع صديقك في ما إذا كان أمر ما غير أخلاقي أم لا، لكنكما قد تختلفان بشدة حول السبب. Je vriend en jij zijn het dus misschien volledig eens over of iets immoreel is of niet, maar het hevig oneens over waarom. Então, você e seu amigo podem concordar totalmente sobre se algo é imoral ou não, mas podem discordar com fervor sobre a razão.

For an example of a slippery moral scenario, let's just head straight over to the Thought Bubble for some Flash Philosophy. وكمثال على موقف أخلاقي غامض؛ سنتوجه مباشرة لفقاعة الأفكار لبعض من اللمحات الفلسفية. Voor een voorbeeld van een hachelijke morele situatie begeven we ons naar de Thought Bubble voor wat Flash Filosofie. Exemplificando um cenário moral escorregadio, vamos direto até a Bolha do Pensamento para um pouco de Filosofia Flash.

A burglar plots to break into an old woman's house on a Sunday morning, a time when he knows she's always at church. خطّط لص ما لسرقة منزل امرأة مُسنة في صباح يوم الأحد، في وقت يعلم فيه بأنها ستكون في الكنيسة دائمًا. Een inbreker smeedt plannen om in te breken in het huis van een oud vrouwtje op een zondagochtend - een tijdstip wanneer ze altijd in de mis zit, weet hij. Um ladrão planeja invadir a casa de uma mulher idosa em uma manhã de domingo, quando ele sabe que ela está sempre na igreja.

So one Sunday, he creeps up to her back window, and smashes it with a hammer. لذا تسلّل في يوم أحد ما لنافذة المنزل الخلفية، وحطّمها بالمطرقة. Een zekere zondag sluipt hij dus naar haar achterraam toe, en breekt het met een hamer. Então, um domingo, ele se arrasta até a janela dos fundos e a quebra com um martelo.

But, after he looks inside, he sees that the old woman isn't at church. لكن وبعدما نظر إلى داخل المنزل، رأى بأن المرأة لم تذهب للكنيسة. Nadat hij naar binnen kijkt, ziet hij echter dat het oud vrouwtje niet in de mis zit. Mas, depois que ele olha para dentro, ele vê que a idosa não está na igreja.

She's in there, laying face-down on the floor. فقد كانت مُمدة على الأرض ورأسها للأسفل. Ze ligt binnen op de grond met haar gezicht naar beneden. Ela está lá, deitada no chão com o rosto para baixo.

The sight of her body scares the burglar, and he runs away. خاف اللص من منظرها هذا فهرب. Het zien van haar lichaam doet de inbreker schrikken, en hij loopt weg. A visão do corpo dela assusta o ladrão, e ele foge.

He was down for a little bit of burglary, but getting nabbed for murder was NOT part of his plan. فهو قد خطّط لجريمة سرقة صغيرة، لكن اعتقاله من أجل جريمة قتل لم يكن جزءً من خطته! Hij was gekomen voor een inbraak, en opgepakt worden voor moord was geen onderdeel van zijn plan. Ele estava a fim de roubar, mas ser flagrado por homicídio não fazia parte do plano.

But what the burglar didn't know was that the old woman wasn't dead. لكن مالم يعلمه اللص أن المرأة لم تكن ميتة. Wat de inbreker niet wist was dat het oud vrouwtje niet dood was. Mas o que o ladrão não sabia era que a idosa não estava morta. Estava inconsciente por causa de um vazamento de monóxido de carbono que a teria matado.

She was unconscious, having passed out because of a carbon monoxide leak that would have killed her. بل كانت فاقدة للوعي، بسبب تسرب في أول أكسيد الكربون والذي كان سيتسبب بوفاتها. Ze was bewusteloos, flauwgevallen door een CO-lek dat haar gedood zou hebben.

When the burglar broke the window, he let out some of the toxic gas, and let in fresh air, which allowed her to regain consciousness. لكن تحطيم اللص للنافذة سمح بخروج الغاز السام ودخول الهواء النقي للمنزل، وأيضًا باستعادتها لوعيها. Toen de inbreker het raam aan diggelen sloeg, liet hij het giftig gas vrij, en frisse lucht binnen, waardoor ze terug bij bewustzijn kwam. Quando ele quebrou a janela, soltou um pouco do gás tóxico, e deixou entrar ar fresco, o que a permitiu recuperar a consciência.

So, the burglar broke into the house with the intention of stealing from the woman, but, inadvertently, he saved her life. إذن، فلقد اقتحم اللص المنزل بنية سرقة المرأة، ولكنه أنقذ حياتها من غير قصد. De inbreker had dus de intentie om te stelen van de vrouw, maar redde per ongeluk haar leven. Assim, o ladrão invadiu a casa com a intenção de roubar a mulher, mas, inadvertidamente, salvou-lhe a vida.

Did the burglar do a good thing? فهل مافعله اللص أمرٌ جيد؟ Verrichtte de inbreker een goede daad? O ladrão fez uma coisa boa?

Does he deserve praise, even though he didn't intend to help the woman? هل يستحق الثناء على ذلك برغم أنه لم يقصد مساعدتها؟ Verdient hij lof, ook al had hij niet de intentie om de vrouw te helpen? Será que ele merece elogios, mesmo não almejando ajudar a mulher?

Likewise, does he still deserve blame, even though he didn't actually get around to stealing anything, and ended up saving the woman's life? أم هل مازال يستحق العقاب، برغم أنه لم يسرق شيئًا بل انتهى به الأمر إلى إنقاذها؟ En verdient hij nog steeds straf, ook al kwam hij niet aan stelen toe, en redde hij uiteindelijk zelfs het leven van het vrouwtje? Da mesma forma, ele ainda merece punição, mesmo não chegando a roubar nada, e acabando por salvar a vida da mulher?

Thanks Thought Bubble! شكرًا لفقاعة الأفكار! Bedankt Thought Bubble! Valeu, Bolha do Pensamento!

Your answers to these questions will help you suss out where your moral sensibilities lie. ستساعدك إجابتك على تلك الأسئلة على اكتشاف مكمَن حواسك الأخلاقية. Je antwoorden op deze vragen zullen je helpen uitpuzzelen waar je morele gevoeligheden liggen. Suas respostas a estas perguntas irão ajudá-lo a detectar onde suas sensibilidades morais estão.

And why you answer the way you do will say a lot about what metaethical view you subscribe to. وستبين لك الطريقة التي أجبت بها الكثير عن الرؤية الفلسفية لمابعد الأخلاق التي تتبناها. En de reden waarom je een bepaald antwoord geeft, zegt veel over welke meta-ethische denkwijze je erop nahoudt. E o porquê você responde assim vai dizer muito sobre a qual visão metaética você adere.

One of the most widely held metaethical views is known as Moral Realism, the belief that there are moral facts, in the same way that there are scientific facts. الواقعية الأخلاقية هي إحدى أكثر الرؤى الفلسفية انتشارًا لمابعد الأخلاق، وهي تعتقد بوجود الحقائق الأخلاقية مثلما توجد الحقائق العلمية. Een van de meest wijdverspreide meta-ethische visies staat bekend als Moreel Realisme, het geloof dat er morele feiten zijn, net zoals er wetenschappelijke feiten zijn. Uma das visões metaéticas mais difundidas é conhecida como Realismo Moral, a crença de que há fatos morais, da mesma forma que existem fatos científicos.

In this view, any moral proposition can only be true, or false. ووفقًا لهذه الرؤية، فإن أي فرضية أخلاقية إما أن تكون صحيحة أو خاطئة. Volgens deze zienswijze, kan een morele propositie enkel waar of fout zijn. Neste ponto de vista, qualquer proposição moral só pode ser verdadeira ou falsa.

And for a lot of us, our gut intuition tells us that there are moral facts. وللعديد منا، فإن الحدس الغريزي هو ما يخبرنا بتلك الحقائق الأخلاقية. Voor velen onder ons, zegt ons buikgevoel ons dat er morele feiten zijn. E para muitos de nós, nosso instinto nos diz que há fatos morais.

Some things are just wrong, and others are indisputably right. فبعض الأمور خاطئة فحسب، والأخرى صحيحة دون جدل. Sommige dingen zijn gewoon verkeerd, en andere zijn ontegensprekelijk juist. Algumas coisas são simplesmente erradas, e outros são indiscutivelmente certas.

Like, a lot of people think that gratuitous violence is always wrong, and nurturing children is always right – no matter what. وعلى سبيل المثال، يعتقد الكثير من الأشخاص بأن العنف غير المُبرر سلوك خاطئ دائمًا، ورعاية الأطفال سلوك صحيح دائمًا، مهما كانت المسألة. Vele mensen denken dat zinloos geweld altijd fout is, en zorg voor kinderen altijd juist - ongeacht de situatie. Tipo, muitas pessoas pensam que violência gratuita é sempre errada, e nutrir as crianças é sempre certo - não importa o quê.

But, you don't have to dig very deep into moral realism before you run into trouble. لكنك لاتحتاج للتعمق أكثر في الواقعية الأخلاقية قبل أن تقع في المشاكل. Je moet echter niet diep graven in het moreel realisme alvorens je op problemen stuit. Mas, você não tem que cavar muito profundamente no realismo moral para ter problemas.

Like for one thing, if there are moral facts, where do they come from? وكمثال على بعض منها مايلي، لو كان هناك وجود للحقائق الأخلاقية فمن أين أتت؟ Bijvoorbeeld, als er morele feiten zijn, waar komen die dan vandaan? Por exemplo, se existem fatos morais, de onde eles vêm?

How do we know what they are? كيف لنا أن نعرف ماهي؟ Hoe weten we wat ze zijn? Como é que sabemos o que são?

Are they testable, like scientific facts are? هل هي حقائق قابلة للاختبار كالحقائق العلمية؟ Zijn ze toetsbaar, zoals wetenschappelijke feiten? Eles são testáveis, como os fatos científicos são?

Are they falsifiable? هل هي حقائق قابلة للتفنيد؟ Zijn ze falsifieerbaar? Eles são falseáveis?

And, if morality is based on facts, then why is there so much disagreement about what's moral and what's not, as opposed to science, where there's often more consensus? ولو أن الأخلاق مبنية على حقائق، فلماذا هناك الكثير من الخلافات حيال ماهو أخلاقي وماعكس ذلك؟ مقارنةً بالحقائق العلمية حيث يغلب عليها الإجماع بالرأي؟ En, als moraliteit gebaseerd is op feiten, waarom is er dan zo veel onenigheid over wat moreel is en wat niet, in tegenstelling tot wetenschap, waar er vaak meer consensus bestaat? E, se a moralidade é baseada em fatos, então por que há tanta divergência sobre o que é moral e o que não é, ao contrário da ciência, onde frequentemente há mais consenso?

This is what's known as the grounding problem. وهذه هي ماتُعرف بمشكلة التأسيس. Dit is wat gekend staat als het grondslagprobleem. Isto é o que é conhecido como o problema fundacional.

The grounding problem of ethics is the search for a foundation for our moral beliefs, something solid that would make them true in a way that is clear, objective, and unmoving. فالمشكلة التأسيسية الأخلاقية هي في البحث عن أساس لمُعتقداتنا الأخلاقية، أساسٌ متين يجعل من تلك المُعتقدات أمرًا حقيقيًا بطريقة واضحة وموضوعية وثابتة. Het grondslagprobleem van de ethiek is de zoektocht naar een basis voor onze morele overtuigingen, iets solide dat hen waar zou maken op een duidelijke, objectieve, onveranderlijke manier. O problema fundacional da ética é a busca de uma base para nossas crenças morais, algo sólido que as faria verdade de uma forma clara, objetiva e inamovível.

If you can't find a way to ground morality, you might be pushed toward another metaethical view: Moral Antirealism. وإن لم تعثر على طريقة لتأسيس الأخلاق، فربما تتوجه نحو رؤية مابعد أخلاقية أخرى مثل: اللاواقعية الأخلاقية. Als je geen manier kan vinden om de moraliteit te gronden, word je misschien in de armen van een andere metha-ethische zienswijze gedreven: het Morele Antirealisme. Se você não consegue encontrar uma maneira de fundamentar a moralidade, você pode ser empurrado para outra visão metaética: Antirealismo Moral.

This is the belief that moral propositions don't refer to objective features of the world at all – that there are no moral facts. وهي التي تقول بأن الفرضيات الأخلاقية لا تشير إلى خصائص مجردة للعالم إطلاقًا- وبأنه لاوجود للحقائق الأخلاقية. Dit is de overtuiging dat morele proposities helemaal niet naar de objectieve kenmerken van de wereld verwijzen - dat er geen morele feiten zijn. Esta é a crença de que as proposições morais não se referem a características objetivas do mundo - ou seja, não há fatos morais.

So a moral anti-realist would argue that there's nothing about gratuitous violence that's inherently wrong. لذا يجادل أتباع هذه الرؤية (اللاواقعيين الأخلاقيين) بعدم وجود شيء خاطئ في حد ذاته حول العنف غير المبرر. Een morele antirealist zou dus argumenteren dat er niets inherent verkeerd is met zinloos geweld. Assim, um anti-realista moral diria que não há nada na violência gratuita que seja inerentemente errado.

Likewise, they'd say, if you look at the rest of the animal kingdom, sometimes nurturing your kids doesn't seem like it's that important. وكما قالوا، لو نظرت إلى بقية الحيوانات فسترى بأن رعاية أطفالك أمرُ غير مهم للغاية. En als je naar de rest van het dierenrijk kijkt, opperen ze, lijkt zorgen voor je kinderen ook niet zo belangrijk. Da mesma forma, eles diriam, se você olhar para o resto do reino animal, por vezes alimentar seus filhos não parece tão importante.

So, maybe morality isn't the same for everyone. ربما الأخلاق ليست ذات الشيء للجميع. Misschien is moraliteit dus niet hetzelfde voor iedereen. Então, talvez a moralidade não é a mesma para todos.

But still, most people you know – including yourself – are committed to some form of moral realism. لكن لايزال أغلب من تعرفهم -بما فيهم أنت- ملتزمين ببعض أنواع الواقعية الأخلاقية. Toch zijn de meeste mensen die je kent - jezelf incluis waarschijnlijk - aanhangers van een bepaalde vorm van moreel realisme. Ainda assim, a maioria das pessoas que você conhece - incluindo você mesmo - estão comprometidos com alguma forma de realismo moral.

And there are MANY forms. ويوجد لها الكثير من الأنواع. En er zijn VELE vormen. E há muitas formas.

So let's familiarize ourselves with some of its most popular flavors. لذا لنتعرف على بعضٍ من أشهرها. Laten we ons daarom vertrouwd maken met enkele van haar meest populaire versies. Então, vamos nos familiarizar com algumas de suas espécies mais populares.

Some moral realists are Moral Absolutists. فبعض الواقعية الأخلاقية تكون مُطلقة أخلاقيًا. Sommige morele realisten zijn Morele Absolutisten. Alguns realistas morais são absolutistas morais.

Not only do they believe in moral facts, they believe there are some moral facts that don't change. فهم لا يؤمنون بالحقائق الأخلاقية فحسب، بل أيضًا أن بعض الحقائق الأخلاقية لاتتغير مُطلقًا. Ze geloven niet alleen in morele feiten, maar ook dat bepaalde morele feiten niet veranderen. Eles não só acreditam em fatos morais mas também que existem alguns fatos morais que não mudam.

So, for them, if something is wrong, it's wrong regardless of culture or circumstance. وبالنسبة لهم، إذا كان أمر ما خاطئًا فهو خاطئ بغض النظر عن الثقافة أو الحالة. Als iets fout is, is het dat volgens hen dus ongeacht de cultuur of situatie. Então, para eles, se algo está errado, é errado independentemente da cultura ou circunstância.

Moral facts apply as universally and as constantly as gravity or the speed of light. فالحقائق الأخلاقية تُطبق كقانون كونيّ مستمر مثل الجاذبية أو سرعة الضوء. Morele feiten zijn zo universeel als de zwaartekracht of de lichtsnelheid. Fatos morais aplicam-se universalmente e constantemente como a gravidade ou a velocidade da luz.

If moral absolutism sounds too rigid, maybe Moral Relativism would appeal to you. لو بدى لك أن النظرية المُطلقة الأخلاقية صارمة جدًا، فربما تروق لك النسبية الأخلاقية. Als moreel absolutisme te rigide klinkt voor jou, spreekt Moreel Relativisme je misschien wel aan. Se o Absolutismo Moral soa muito rígido, talvez o Relativismo Moral te atraia.

This view says that more than one moral position on a given topic can be correct. تقول هذه الرؤية بأنه يوجد أكثر من موقف أخلاقي صحيح لمسألة ما. Deze opvatting stelt dat meer dan één moreel standpunt over een gegeven onderwerp juist kan zijn. Esta visão diz que mais de uma posição moral sobre um determinado assunto pode ser correta.

And one of the most common forms of moral relativism is cultural relativism. أحد أهم وأشهر فئات النسبية الأخلاقية مايعرف بالنسبية الثقافية. Een van de meest voorkomende vormen van moreel relativisme is cultureel relativisme. E uma das formas mais comuns de relativismo moral é o relativismo cultural.

But there are actually two different things a person might mean when they talk about cultural relativism. لكن في الحقيقة يوجد نوعان مختلفان من النسبية الثقافية قد يقصدهما من يتحدث عنها: Er zijn echter twee verschillende dingen die een persoon zou kunnen bedoelen wanneer hij het over cultuur relativisme heeft. Mas há na verdade duas coisas diferentes que uma pessoa pode dizer quando falam sobre o relativismo cultural.

The more general kind is Descriptive Cultural Relativism. أشهرها النسبية الثقافية الوصفية. De meer algemene soort is Beschrijvend Cultureel Relativisme. O tipo mais geral é o Relativismo Cultural Descritivo.

This is simply the belief that people's moral beliefs differ from culture to culture. وهي تؤمن ببساطة أن مُعتقدات الأشخاص الأخلاقية تختلف من ثقافة لأخرى. Dit is simpelweg het geloof dat de morele overtuigingen van mensen verschillen van cultuur tot cultuur. Isto é simplesmente a crença de que as crenças morais das pessoas diferem de cultura para cultura.

No one really disputes that – it seems obviously true. لا أحد يختلف مع هذا -فهو يبدو أمرًا صحيحًا بوضوح. Niemand betwist dit echt - het lijkt vanzelfsprekend waar. Ninguém realmente contesta isso - parece uma verdade obvia.

Like, some cultures believe that capital punishment is morally right, and other cultures believe it's morally wrong – that killing another human is inherently unethical. فمثلًا، تؤمن بعض الثقافات بأن عقوبة الإعدام أمر صحيح أخلاقيًا، وآخرون يرونه أمرًا خاطئًا أخلاقيًا -بما أن قتل إنسان آخر أمر غير أخلاقي في ذاته. Sommige culturen denken dat de doodstraf moreel juist is, andere dat het moreel fout is - dat een andere mens doden inherent onethisch is. Tipo, algumas culturas acreditam que a pena de morte é moralmente correta, e outras culturas acreditam que é moralmente errada - que matar outro ser humano é inerentemente antiético.

But there's also Normative Cultural Relativism, which says that it's not our beliefs, but moral facts themselves that differ from culture to culture. لكن توجد أيضًا النسبية الثقافية المعيارية، والتي تقول بأن التي تختلف من ثقافة لأخرى ليست مُعتقداتنا إنما الحقائق الأخلاقية ذاتها. Er is echter ook Normatief Cultureel Relativisme, dat zegt dat het niet onze overtuigingen, maar de morele feiten zelf zijn die verschillen van cultuur tot cultuur. Mas há também o Relativismo Cultural Normativo, que diz que não são nossas crenças, mas os próprios fatos morais que diferem de cultura para cultura.

So in this view, capital punishment is morally correct in some cultures and is morally wrong in others. وبالنسبة لهذه الرؤية، فإن عقوبة الإعدام صحيحة أخلاقيًا في ثقافات ما وخاطئة أخلاقيًا في أخرى Volgens deze opvatting is de doodstraf moreel correct in sommige culturen en moreel fout in andere. Portanto, neste ponto de vista, a pena de morte é moralmente correta em algumas culturas e é moralmente errada em outras.

Here, it's the moral fact of the matter that differs, based on culture. فهنا اختلفت الحقائق الأخلاقية لمسألة ما بناءً على الثقافة. Het is hier het morele feit dat verschilt, gebaseerd op de cultuur. Aqui, é o fato moral da questão que difere, baseado na cultura.

Now, normative cultural relativism might sound pretty good to you; it does at first to a lot of people. ربما تروق لك نظرية النسبية الثقافية المعيارية كما فعلت للوهلة الأولى للعديد من الأشخاص Je vindt normatief cultureel relativisme misschien best goed klinken; dat vinden veel mensen aanvankelijk. Agora, o relativismo cultural normativo pode parecer muito bom para você; a primeira vista, parece ser para muita gente.

Because it seems like it's all about inclusiveness and tolerance. لأنها تبدو وكأنها تتمحور حول الاندماج والتسامح. Het lijkt allemaal om inclusiviteit en tolerantie te gaan. Porque parece que é tudo sobre inclusão e tolerância.

Who am I to tell other cultures how they should live, right? فمن أنا لأخبر الثقافات الأخرى بالطريقة التي يجب أن يعيشوا بها، أليس كذلك؟ Wie ben ik om andere culturen te vertellen hoe ze moeten leven, nietwaar? Quem sou eu para dizer às outras culturas como devem viver, certo?

But this view actually has some pretty big flaws. لكن في الحقيقة تحمل هذه النظرية بعضًا من الأخطاء الفادحة Deze zienswijze heeft echter enkele grote mankementen. Mas este ponto de vista, na verdade, tem algumas grandes falhas.

If every culture is the sole arbiter of what's right for it, that means no culture can actually be wrong. فلو أن كل ثقافة هي المُحكم الوحيد لما هو صحيح بالنسبة لها، فهذا يعني عدم وجود أي ثقافة من الممكن أن تكون خاطئة. Als elke cultuur de enige scheidsrechter is over wat goed voor haar is, betekent dit dat geen enkele cultuur verkeerd kan zijn. Se cada cultura é o único árbitro do que é certo para ela, isso significa que nenhuma cultura pode realmente estar errada.

It means Nazi culture actually was right, for the people living in that culture. فهذا يعني أن الثقافة النازية صحيحة، لمن عاشوا فيها. Het betekent dat de nazi-cultuur in feite juist was voor de mensen die erin leefden. Significa que a cultura nazista realmente estava certa para quem nela vivia.

A dissenting German voice in, say, 1940, would have just been wrong, if it had claimed that Jewish people deserved to be treated the same as other Germans. بينما الأصوات الألمانية المُقاومة للنازية لعام 1940 من الممكن أن تكون مخطئة، إذا زعمت بأن اليهود يستحقون معاملة كالألمانيين الآخرين. Een dissidente Duitse stem in 1940 zou gewoon verkeerd geweest zijn, als hij had beweerd dat Joodse mensen verdienden behandeld te worden op dezelfde manier als andere Duitsers. Uma voz alemã discordante, digamos, em 1940, teria sido apenas errada se ele afirmasse que o povo judeu merecia ser tratados da mesma forma como outros alemães.

And what makes things even weirder is that, if normative cultural relativism is true, then the concept of moral progress doesn't make sense, either. ومما يجعل الأمور أكثر غرابة أنه إذا كانت النسبية الثقافية المعيارية صحيحة؛ فإن مفهوم التقدم الأخلاقي لا معنى له كذلك. En wat de zaken nog vreemder maakt, is dat, als normatief cultureel relativisme correct is, het concept van morele vooruitgang ook niet zinvol is. E o que torna as coisas ainda mais estranhas é que, se o relativismo cultural normativo é verdade, então o conceito de progresso moral não faz sentido também.

If what everyone is doing right now is right, relative to their own culture, then there's never any reason to change anything. فإذا كان مايفعله الجميع الآن صحيحًا بالنسبة إلى ثقافتهم؛ إذن لايوجد أي سبب يدعو لتغيير أي شيء. Als wat iedereen nu doet juist is, relatief aan hun eigen cultuur, dan is er nooit reden tot verandering. Se o que todo mundo está fazendo agora é certo, em relação à sua própria cultura, então nunca haverá qualquer razão para mudar algo.

Problems like these make some people take a second look at the antirealist stance, which, remember, is the view that there just aren't any moral facts. تقود المشاكل كهذه البعض إلى إعادة النظر إلى الموقف اللاواقعي، والذي إن كنت تتذكره، يزعم بعدم وجود حقائق أخلاقية على الإطلاق. Problemen als deze doen sommige mensen opnieuw in de richting van de antirealistische houding kijken, wat, herinner je, de opvatting is dat er geen morele feiten zijn. Problemas como estes fazem algumas pessoas reavaliar a posição anti-realista, que, lembre-se, é a visão de que simplesmente não há quaisquer fatos morais.

Just one flavor of moral antirealism is Moral Subjectivism. فإحدى نظريات اللاواقعية الأخلاقية هي مايعرف بالموضوعية الأخلاقية. Een versie van het moreel antirealisme is het Moreel Subjectivisme. Só há uma espécie de anti-realismo moral, que é o Subjetivismo moral.

This view says that moral statements can be true and false – right or wrong – but they refer only to people's attitudes, rather than their actions. والتي تقول بأن الجمل الأخلاقية من الممكن أن تكون صحيحة أو خاطئة -جيدة أو سيئة- لكنها تشير فقط إلى سلوك الأشخاص بدلًا عن تصرفاتهم. Deze opvatting stelt dat morele uitspraken waar of onwaar kunnen zijn - juist of fout - maar dat ze enkel verwijzen naar de attitudes van mensen, in plaats van hun handelingen. Esta visão diz que enunciados morais podem ser verdadeiros ou falsos - certo ou errado - mas eles se referem apenas a atitude das pessoas, ao invés de suas ações.

By this thinking, capital punishment is neither right nor wrong, but people definitely have preferences about it. وبهذا الرأي، فإن عقوبة الإعدام ليست بأمر جيد أو سيئ، بل تتفاوت تفضيلات الأشخاص حيال هذا الأمر. Volgens dit denken is de doodstraf noch juist noch fout, maar hebben mensen er zeker voorkeuren over. Por este pensamento, a pena capital não é nem certo nem errado, mas as pessoas definitivamente têm preferências sobre o assunto.

And those preferences key into personal attitudes, but not into actual, objective moral facts about the world. وتلك التفضيلات هي المفتاح إلى السلوكيات الشخصية، لا إلى الحقائق الأخلاقية المجردة أو الواقعية. En deze voorkeuren zijn gebaseerd op persoonlijke attitudes, maar niet op objectieve, morele feiten over de wereld. E essas preferências se referem a atitudes pessoais, mas não para fatos morais objetivos reais sobre o mundo.

Like, some people favor capital punishment, and think it's just. فمثلًا، يرى البعض بأن عقوبة الإعدام أمرٌ عادل. Sommige mensen zijn voorstander van de doodstraf, en vinden het rechtvaardig. Tipo, algumas pessoas apoiam a pena capital, e acham que isso é justo.

Others oppose it and think it's unjust. وآخرين يعارضون ذلك بأنه ليس عدلًا. Anderen zijn ertegen en vinden het onrechtvaardig. Outros se opõem a ela e a acham injusta.

But it doesn't go any deeper than that. لكنها لاتتعمق لأكثر من هذا. Maar dieper dan dat gaat het niet. Mas não passa daí.

There are no moral facts, only moral attitudes. فلاوجود لحقائق أخلاقية إنما سلوكيات أخلاقية. Er zijn geen morele feiten, enkel morele attitudes. Não há fatos morais, somente atitudes morais.

There are other varieties of both moral realism and antirealism, but this should give you an idea of the general, metaethical lay of the land. هناك نظريات أخرى لكلا الواقعية واللاواقعية الأخلاقية، لكن ينبغي لماسبق أن يعطيك فكرة عامة عن فلسفة مابعد الأخلاق. Er zijn andere versies van zowel moreel realisme als antirealisme, maar dit zou je een idee moeten geven van het algemene meta-ethische landschap. Existem outras variedades tanto do realismo quanto do anti-realismo, mas isso deve dar-lhe uma idéia geral dos fundamentos da metaética.

And by now, it probably seems like I've given you a lot more problems than solutions. ويبدو الآن كما لو أنني أعطيتك العديد من المشاكل بدلًا من الحلول. En het lijkt ondertussen waarschijnlijk dat ik je heel wat meer problemen heb bezorgd dan oplossingen. Até agora, provavelmente eu tenha lhe dado muito mais problemas do que soluções.

So let's talk about the moral frameworks you'll use to navigate your way through all of these moral mazes. فلنتحدث إذا عن الأُطر الأخلاقية التي ستساعدك على تجاوز كل تلك المتاهات الأخلاقية. Laten we het dus hebben over de morele kaders die je zal gebruiken om je weg uit deze morele doolhoven te vinden. Então, vamos falar sobre as estruturas morais que você vai usar para navegar no seu caminho através de todos esses labirintos morais.

These frameworks are known as ethical theories. تعرف هذه الأُطر بالنظريات الأخلاقية. Deze kaders staan bekend als ethische theorieën. Essas estruturas são conhecidas como teorias éticas.

They're moral foundations that help you come up with consistent answers about right and wrong conduct. وهي الثوابت الأخلاقية التي ستساعدك على التوصل إلى أجابات مُتسقة حول السلوك الجيد والسيئ. Het zijn morele fundamenten die je helpen om consistente antwoorden over juist en fout gedrag te vinden. Eles são fundamentos morais que ajudam você a encontrar respostas consistentes sobre a conduta certa ou errada.

All ethical theories have some kind of starting assumptions, which shouldn't be surprising, because really all of our beliefs rest on some basic, assumed beliefs. ولدى جميع النظريات الأخلاقية نوعٌ من الفرضيات الأساسية غير المُستغربة، بسبب أن مُعتقداتنا جميعها مبنية على بعض المُعتقدات الأساسية أو المُفترضة. Alle ethische theorieën hebben bepaalde beginveronderstellingen, wat niet verrassend zou mogen zijn, aangezien al onze overtuigen eigenlijk gebaseerd zijn op enkele veronderstelde basisovertuigingen. Todas as teorias éticas têm algum tipo de pressupostos de partida, o que não deveria ser surpreendente, porque realmente todas as nossas crenças fundam-se em algumas crenças básicas.

For instance, natural law theory, which we'll study soon, relies on the starting assumption that God created the universe according to a well-ordered plan. فمثلًا، تستند نظرية القوانين الطبيعية -التي سندرسها قريبًا- إلى فرضية مبدئية تقول بأن الإله خلق الكون وفقًا لنظام مُحكم. De theorie van het natuurrecht bijvoorbeeld, waar we ons binnenkort over buigen, baseert zich op de beginveronderstelling dat God het universum creëerde volgens een goed doordacht plan. Por exemplo, a teoria da lei natural, que vamos estudar em breve, assenta-se na premissa de que Deus criou o universo de acordo com um plano bem ordenado.

While another ethical theory, known as utilitarianism, relies on the starting assumption that all beings share a common desire to seek pleasure and avoid pain. بينما تستند نظرية أخلاقية اخرى تُعرف بنظرية المنفعة، إلى فرضية مبدئية تقول بأن لدى جميع الكائنات رغبة مشتركة للسعي خلف المُتعة وتجنب الألم. Een andere ethische theorie, het utilitarisme, berust op de veronderstelling dat alle wezens een gemeenschappelijk verlangen bezitten om plezier na te streven en pijn te vermijden. Enquanto outra teoria ética, conhecida como o utilitarismo, assenta-se na premissa de que todos os seres compartilham um desejo comum de buscar o prazer e evitar a dor.

The starting assumptions of a theory can lead us to other beliefs, but if you reject those initial assumptions, the rest of the theory just doesn't follow. قد تقودنا الفرضيات المبدئية لنظرية ما إلى مُعتقدات أخرى، لكن في حالة رفضك لهذه الفرضيات الأولية، فلن تتسق بقية النظرية معًا. De beginveronderstellingen van een theorie kunnen ons dus leiden tot andere overtuigingen, maar als je deze initiële veronderstellingen verwerpt, heeft de rest van de theorie ook niets om op te steunen. As premissas iniciais de uma teoria podem nos levar a outras crenças, mas se você rejeitar as suposições iniciais, o resto da teoria simplesmente não prossegue.

Now, in addition to starting assumptions, ethical theories also consist of Moral Principles, which are the building blocks that make up the theories. تتألف النظريات الأخلاقية بالإضافة إلى الفرضيات الأولية من مبادئ أخلاقية أيضًا، وهي الأسس التي صُنعت منها النظريات. Bovenop deze beginveronderstellingen bestaan ethische theorieën ook uit Morele Principes/Beginselen, de bouwstenen van de theorieën. Além das premissas, teorias éticas também consistem em Princípios Morais, que são os tijolos que constroem as teorias.

And these principles can be shared between more than one theory. وقد توجد مبادئ مُشتركة بين النظريات. En deze beginselen kunnen gedeeld worden door meerdere theorieën. E esses princípios podem ser compartilhadas entre mais de uma teoria.

For instance, many ethical theories agree on the principle that it's wrong to cause unjustified suffering. فمثلًا، تتفق العديد من النظريات الأخلاقية على أن مبدأ التسبب بمعاناة غير مبررة أمرٌ خاطئ. Vele ethische theorieën zijn het bijvoorbeeld eens over het principe dat het verkeerd is om ongerechtvaardigd lijden te berokkenen. Por exemplo, muitas teorias éticas concordam com o princípio de que é errado causar sofrimento injustificado.

Some ethical theories hold the principle that any unjustified killing is wrong – and that includes animals – while other theories hold the principle that it's only wrong to unjustifiably kill humans. بعضها تتبنى مبدأ أن أي قتل غير مُبرر أمر خاطئ -بما فيه قتل الحيوانات- بينما تتبنى أخرى مبدأ أن القتل غير المبرر أمر خاطئ للبشر فحسب. Sommige ethische theorieën hebben als principe dat eender welk ongerechtvaardigd doden verkeerd is - ook van dieren - terwijl andere theorieën het principe hanteren dat het enkel verkeerd in om ongerechtvaardigd mensen te doden. Algumas teorias éticas usam o princípio de que qualquer matança injustificada está errado - e isso inclui animais - enquanto outras teorias sustentam o princípio de que só é errado matar injustificadamente seres humanos.

But the thing about ethical theories is that most people don't identify with just one. لكن مايُميز النظريات الأخلاقية أن العديد من الأشخاص لايتبنون واحدة منها فقط. De meeste mensen identificeren zich niet met één bepaalde ethische theorie. Mas a questão sobre teorias éticas é que a maioria das pessoas não se identificam com apenas uma.

Instead, most people identify with principles from several theories that help them form their own moral views. بل يتبنون مبادئ من نظريات عدة تساعدهم على خلق آرائهم الأخلاقية الخاصة. In de plaats daarvan identificeren de meeste mensen zich met principes van verschillende theorieën die hen helpen om hun eigen morele zienswijze te construeren. Em vez disso, a maioria das pessoas se identificam com os princípios de várias teorias que ajudam a formar os seus próprios pontos de vista morais.

We're going to be spending several weeks learning about these ethical theories, and you'll probably find elements of some that you already believe, and others that you definitely disagree with. وسنقضي عدة أسابيع نتعرف فيها على تلك النظريات الأخلاقية، وعلى الأرجح ستجد جزءًا من بعضها كنت قد آمنت به مسبقًا، وأخرى تختلف معها تمامًا. We gaan verscheidene weken spenderen aan het leren over deze ethische theorieën, en je zal waarschijnlijk elementen vinden van sommige waar je al in gelooft, en andere waar je het volledig oneens mee bent. Nós vamos passar várias semanas aprendendo sobre essas teorias éticas, e você provavelmente vai encontrar elementos de algumas que você já acredita, e outros com que você definitivamente não concorda.

But all of this accepting and rejecting will help you develop a new way to talk about – and think about – what are, for now, your gut moral intuitions. لكن كل هذا القبول والرّفض سيساعدك على تطوير طريقة جديدة للتحدث -والتفكير- عن ما نسميه الآن، حَدسك الأخلاقي الغريزي. Maar al dit accepteren en verwerpen zal je helpen om een nieuwe manier te ontwikkelen om te praten - en na te denken - over wat, voor jou, je morele intuïties zijn. Mas todo esse aceitar e rejeitar o ajudará a desenvolver uma nova maneira de falar - e pensar sobre - o que são, por enquanto, suas intuições morais.

Today we talked about metaethics. تحدثنا اليوم عن فلسفة ما بعد الأخلاق. Vandaag hadden we het over meta-ethiek. Hoje falamos sobre metaética.

We discussed three forms of moral realism and we learned the difference between descriptive and normative cultural relativism. وناقشنا ثلاث فئات من الواقعية الأخلاقية وتعلمنا الاختلاف بين النسبية الثقافية الوصفية والمعيارية. We bespraken drie vormen van moreel realisme en we leerden het verschil tussen beschrijvend en normatief cultureel relativisme. Discutimos três formas de realismo moral e aprendemos a diferença entre o relativismo cultural descritivo e normativo.

We also learned about moral subjectivism, which is a form of moral antirealism. وتعلمنا أيضًا عن الموضوعية الأخلاقية والتي هي فئة من اللاوقعية الأخلاقية. We leerden over moreel subjectivisme, wat een vorm van moreel anti-realisme is. Nós também aprendemos sobre o subjetivismo moral, que é uma forma de antirealismo moral.

And we introduced the concept of an ethical theory. ومقدمة عن مفهوم النظرية الأخلاقية. En we introduceerden het concept van een ethische theorie. E nós introduzimos o conceito de teoria ética.

Next time we're going to learn about the ethical theory known as the Divine Command Theory. سنتعلم في المرة القادمة عن إحدى النظريات الأخلاقية والتي تعرف بنظرية الأمر الإلهي. Volgende keer zullen we leren over de ethische theorie gekend als de Goddelijke Beveltheorie. Da próxima vez vamos aprender sobre a teoria ética conhecida como a teoria dos mandamentos divinos.

Crash Course Philosophy is produced in association with PBS Digital Studios. أُنتج كراس كورس الفلسفة بالتعاون مع أستوديوهات بي بي إس الرقمية. Crash Course Filosofie wordt geproduceerd in samenwerking met PBS Digital Studios. Crash Course Filosofia é produzido em associação com PBS Digital Studios.

You can head over to their channel and check out a playlist of the latest episodes from shows like: بإمكانك التوجه إلى قناتهم والاطلاع على أحدث حلقات البرامج مثل: Je kan een kijkje nemen op hun kanaal voor een afspeellijst van de laatste afleveringen van shows als Você pode ir direto pra o canal deles e conferir uma lista de reprodução dos mais recentes episódios de programas como:

Physics Girl, Shanks FX, and PBS Space Time. فيزيكس قيرل، شانكس اف اكس، وبي بي اس سبيس تايم. Physics Girl, Shanks FX en PBS Space Time. Garota Física, Shanks FX, e PBS espaço tempo.

This episode of Crash Course Philosophy was filmed in the Doctor Cheryl C. Kinney Crash Course Studio صُورت هذه الحلقة من كراش كورس الفلسفة في استديو كراش كورس في دكتور شيرل سي كيني. Deze aflevering van Crash Course Filosofie werd gefilmd in de Doctor Cheryl C. Kinney Crash Course Studio Este episódio de Crash Course Filosofia foi filmado no estúdio Doctor Cheryl C. Kinney Crash Course.

with the help of all of these awesome people and our equally fantastic graphics team is Thought Cafe. بمساعدة هؤلاء الرائعين وفريق الرسومات المُدهش ثوت كافي. ترجمة: فريق أُترجم @autrjim met de hulp van al deze geweldige mensen en ons evenzeer fantastisch grafisch team is Thought Cafe. Com a ajuda de todas estas pessoas incríveis e nossa igualmente fantástica equipe gráfica, a Thought Cafe.