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Crash Course Philisophy 17-46, Language & Meaning: Crash Course Philosophy #26

Language & Meaning: Crash Course Philosophy #26

What is a game? Easy question, right?

You know what a game is – there's basketball, Chutes and Ladders, Dungeon and Dragons, tennis, Wizard School!

But those are examples of games. What I'm asking for is the definition of a game.

Maybe, if you haven't been keeping up with Crash Course Games, you'd simply say that,

a game is a competition, with winners and losers.

But, what about a game like ring around the rosie?

Does a game require at least two players?

No, there is literally a game called solitaire solitaire.

Maybe a game is just a thing you do for fun.

But what about “who can stay quiet the longest” –

the game that your parents used to use on long car trips?

Or, like, Russian roulette?

Or The Game of Thrones, where you win or you die?

When it comes to language, there's a lot to philosophize about.

But one question that philosophers of language like to mull is the question of meaning.

What do words – like ‘game' or ‘red' or ‘banana' What do they mean?

How do we know what they mean?

And who gets to decide?

[Theme Music]

Language is one of our most nuanced and powerful tools.

It takes all of the stuff that's swirling around in each of our lonely, isolated brains – all those thoughts – and transfers them into someone else's brain.

Which is really, fabulously cool. It's like telepathy!

But with the extra step of actually speaking or writing.

But, how do words – a collection of sounds or written symbols – key into the mental concepts that we want to communicate? The naive understanding of what words mean is just that they're just whatever the dictionary says.

But we know that's not totally true.

Think about the difference between words like ‘cat,' ‘kitty,' ‘mouser,' and ‘feline'.

Early 20th century German philosopher Gottlab Frege helped parse out this difference by drawing a distinction between what he called sense, and reference.

The reference of a word is the object or concept that it's meant to designate.

The reference of all these words is this.

Sense, on the other hand, is the way in which the words tie us to the object or concept.

So, while the reference of each of these words is the same, they have different senses.

A kitty might be a baby cat, or sort of fancy lap cat,

while a mouser might be a cat that lives in a barn and kills rodents for a living.

So how do words get their meaning?

A definition is traditionally understood as whatever meets the conditions for both necessity and sufficiency.

A necessary condition is what's needed – like, what must be present – in order for a thing to be a thing.

In order for X to be X.

A necessary condition of being a bachelor, for example, is that you must be unmarried.

A sufficient condition is something that's enough for X to be X,

but it's not required for that thing to meet that definition.

For example, being born in the United States is a sufficient condition for being an American citizen.

But it's not a necessary condition, because people who weren't born in the US can still become citizens.

The long-standing view of definitions was that, if you can figure out both the necessary and sufficient conditions for something to be X, then you'll have your definition.

That is, you'll have found the criteria that exclude all non-X's, but include all X's.

If you're following me.

But 20th century Austrian-British philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein said this rigid concept of definitions doesn't actually work.

For example, you just can't define the word ‘game' in a way that's going to make everybody happy.

Any definition you give, someone's going to come up with a counterexample –

either some game that's excluded by the definition,

or something that the definition includes that not everyone would agree is a game.

It took Andre and entire 10 minute episode to define games!

But the thing is, Wittgenstein said this doesn't matter!

Because, everyone knows what a game is!

He pointed out that we learn and know the meaning of words

by hearing the way other members of our linguistic community use them.

We hear Candyland, rugby, and Cards Against Humanity all referred to as games,

so eventually our brains piece together what's common between them,

in a recognition that Wittgenstein called family resemblance.

You know how you can just see the relation between people sometimes?

Rather than rigid definitions, Wittgenstein said word meanings are so-called cluster concepts.

There's no one element that everything in the cluster has in common,

but they all share something with some other members of the group.

It's sort of like you have your dad's nose and your mom's sense of humor,

and your sister has your mom's eyes and your dad's athleticism.

You and your sister don't really have much in common, but you do both resemble both parents.

But it's not like every concept in the cluster is equal.

The ones that everyone would accept are the paradigm cases – you can picture them in the center of the cluster.

And as you move to the outer edges you'll get fringe cases, the ones that some people would include in the group but others would exclude.

Everyone will agree that football is a game, but there's going to be some disagreement about things like,

I don't know, knife fights, or how long you can hold your breath under water.

And Wittgenstein said that's fine.

Language is a living phenomenon, and like most living things, there's going to be change and variation.

But who gets to decide what words mean, or if a meaning is legitimate?

Here, Wittgenstein said, “meaning is use.”

In other words, as long as a linguistic community uses a word in a particular way, it has that meaning.

Watching the way words develop and change does suggest that Wittgenstein was onto something.

I mean, ‘mouse' didn't used to mean that thing, but now it does.

We make words up as we need them.

And at the same time, words also fall out of use, or take on entirely new meanings.

Now, this view of language assumes that meaning is tied to a particular linguistic communities.

And a community might, or might not, span all of the speakers of that language.

Think about the regional differences in words that might be specific to your town, or school, or group of friends, or family.

And what about this: Do you and your best friend have code words – words that you use to talk privately, even when you're in public?

Like, the two of you could be at a club, and one of you would say to the other:

“That guy at the bar is a total shoehorn” and the other one would know exactly what you meant?

In that case, do those words, that have meaning specific to the two of you,

really mean what you say they mean, even if no one else agrees with you?

And what happens if the two of you forget that meaning?

Is the meaning still there?

Or does it only exist as long as someone uses the word that way?

Let's bounce over to the Thought Bubble for a bit of Flash Philosophy.

A linguistic community of two – like you and your friend – seems fairly plausible.

But is it possible to have an entirely private language?

Wittgenstein asked us to imagine that each of us has a box, and inside each box is something.

We all refer to the thing in our box as ‘a beetle,' but no one can see inside anyone else's box, ever.

We all call our hidden thing a beetle, but we have no idea if the content of our boxes is the same.

Wittgenstein said there's no way we can meaningfully use the word ‘beetle' in this context,

because we have no way of verifying what others mean when they use the word, and they have no way of verifying what we mean.

This is meant to illustrate how it's impossible to directly communicate our subjective experiences.

We all use the word ‘red' to refer to the color we see when we look at a stop sign,

but I have no way of knowing if you're actually seeing the same thing that I'm seeing.

I don't know if your pain feels like my pain or your love feels like my love.

Our minds are like boxes.

No one else can see what's inside.

But here's the thing: it doesn't matter.

Because ‘beetle' just means, ‘what's in the box.'

It could literally be a beetle, or it could be a fox! In socks!

The point is, we don't know if the color red in my mind is the same as the color red in your mind, because the color red is a beetle in a box.

It's a label for what's in our minds.

So language, Wittgenstein said, can't refer directly to an internal state,

like what it's like to see the color red, or to experience pain.

Instead, it can only refer to the aspect of it that's publicly observable by other people.

So, the word ‘pain' isn't the feeling of physical suffering, it's jumping on one foot and cursing when you stub a toe.

It's rubbing your temples when you have a headache – the observable behaviors that are associated with it.

Thanks, Thought Bubble! Now I want to propose an experiment.

If use is meaning, you should be able to give a word meaning by using it, right?

At least, if you can convince a linguistic community to go there with you.

So let's try it.

If every Crash Course viewer starts referring to bananas as chom choms, can we make it catch on?

Can we create meaning?!

We'll have to stay tuned for the answer to that one, but in the meantime, we can think about what might happen.

And to do that, we need to make a distinction between two different types of meaning.

When people communicate verbally, there's speaker meaning, which is what the speaker intends when using a word.

And then there's audience meaning, which is what the audience understands.

Since the whole point of language is communication, our goal is for speaker meaning and audience meaning to match up.

But, as anyone who's ever, like, had a conversation, knows, this doesn't always work out.

Like, Billy tells Bobby that he likes Sally.

Billy, the speaker, means that he likes Sally as a friend.

Bobby, the audience, takes Billy's statement to be a profession of, like, you know, like-like.

So Bobby then goes and tells Sally that Billy like-likes her, when in fact Billy actually like-likes Suzy, and pretty soon, you know how it goes. Tears.

The point is, that even with a simple word that we all think we understand, like ‘like,'

speaker meaning and audience meaning can fail to connect.

When we get into more complicated or nuanced words, or when we try to invent a new word, like chom chom,

we're likely to run into some pretty high-level speaker-meaning/audience-meaning confusion.

But for now, we learned about meaning.

We talked about sense and reference, beetles in boxes, and language games.

And we learned that bananas are called chom choms.

Repeat it with me: chom choms.

Never say bananas again.

Next time, we're going to talk about another linguistic concept – conversational implicature.

Crash Course Philosophy is produced in association with PBS Digital Studios.

You can head over to their channel to check out a playlist of the latest episodes from shows like

PBS Idea Channel, It's Okay to be Smart, and Physics Girl.

This episode of Crash Course was filmed in the Doctor Cheryl C. Kinney Crash Course Studio

with the help of all of these awesome people

and our equally fantastic graphics team is Thought Cafe.

Language & Meaning: Crash Course Philosophy #26 Sprache und Bedeutung: Crashkurs Philosophie #26 Lenguaje y significado: Crash Course Philosophy #26 Langage et sens : Cours accéléré de philosophie n°26 言語と意味：クラッシュコース哲学第26回 Język i znaczenie: Crash Course Philosophy #26 Linguagem e significado: Curso Rápido de Filosofia #26 Язык и смысл: Краткий курс философии №26 Dil ve Anlam: Crash Course Philosophy #26 Мова і смисл: Прискорений курс філософії #26 语言与意义：哲学速成课程#26

What is a game? Easy question, right? ماهي اللعبة؟ سؤال سهل، صحيح؟ Was ist ein Spiel? Einfache Frage, stimmt's? Qu'est-ce qu'un jeu ? Question simple n'est-ce pas ? Cos'è un gioco? Domanda facile, vero? O que é um jogo? Pergunta fácil, não é? 'Oyun' nedir? Kolay bir soru, değil mi?

You know what a game is – there's basketball, Chutes and Ladders, Dungeon and Dragons, tennis, Wizard School! ||||||||すべり台||すごろく|ダンジョン||||ウィザード学校|学校 ||||||||Chutes||Ladders|Dungeon||Dragons||| أنت تعرف أن اللعبة هي - كرة السلة، السلالم والثعابين، الحصن والتنين، التنس، مدرسة السحر! Du weißt, was ein Spiel ist - Da gibt es Basketball, Schlangen und Leitern, Dungeons & Dragons, Tennis, Wizard School! Vous savez ce qu'est un jeu - il y a le basketball, Chutes and Ladders, Donjon et Dragons, le tennis, l'école des sorciers ! Lo sapete cos'è un gioco: c'è il basket, Scale & Serpenti, Dungeon and Dragons, il tennis, Wizard School! Oyunun ne olduğunu bilirsiniz - basketbol, Yılanlar ve Merdivenler, Zindanlar ve Ejderhalar, tenis, Büyücü Okulu!

But those are examples of games. What I'm asking for is the definition of a game. لكن هذه أمثلة على الألعاب. الذي أسأل عنه هنا هو تعريف اللعبة. Aber das sind Beispiele für Spiele. Wonach ich frage ist die Definition eines Spiels. Mais ce ne sont que des exemples de jeux. Ce que je demande c'est ce qu'est la définition d'un jeu. Ma questi sono esempi di giochi. Ciò che sto chiedendo è la definizione di gioco. Mas esses são exemplos de jogos. O que estou a pedir é a definição de um jogo. Ama bunlar oyun örnekleridir. Ben oyunun tanımının ne olduğunu soruyorum.

Maybe, if you haven't been keeping up with Crash Course Games, you'd simply say that, ربما، لو لم تتابع حلقات ألعاب كراش كورس، فستقول ببساطة Vielleicht, wenn du nicht mit Crash Course Games auf dem neuesten Stand bist, würdest du einfach sagen, Si vous n'avez pas suivi "Crash Course Games" , vous diriez peut-être simplement que, Forse, se non siete al passo con Crash Course Games, direste semplicemente che Talvez, se não estivesses a acompanhar o Crash Course Games, pudesses simplesmente dizer isso, Eğer Crash Course Games izlemiyorsanız, basitçe söyleyebilirsiniz:

a game is a competition, with winners and losers. ||||||勝者||敗者 ||||||||perdenti أن اللعبة هي منافسة تتضمن فائزين وخاسرين. dass ein Spiel ein Wettbewerb mit Gewinnern und Verlierern ist. un jeu est une compétition, avec des gagnants et des perdants. un gioco è una competizione, con vincitori e perdenti. um jogo é uma competição, com vencedores e vencidos. oyun bir yarışmadır, kazananlar ve kaybedenler vardır.

But, what about a game like ring around the rosie? |||||||autour||rosie |||||||||ロージー ||||||an informal children's game|||rosie لكن ماذا عن الألعاب مثل الحلقة حول روزي؟ Aber was ist dann mit Spielen wie Ringelreigen? Pero, ¿qué tal un juego como el ring around the rosie? Mais, que dire d'un jeu comme "Ring around the rosie" ? Ma, che ne dite di un gioco tipo il girotondo? Mas, e que tal um jogo como o "ring around the rosie"? Peki, 'ring around the rosie' gibi bir oyun için ne dersiniz?

Does a game require at least two players? هل تتطلب اللعبة لاعبين على الأقل؟ Braucht man für ein Spiel mindestens zwei Spieler? Est-ce qu'un jeu nécessite au moins deux joueurs ? Un gioco richiede almeno due giocatori? Bir oyun için iki kişi mi olmak gereklidir?

No, there is literally a game called solitaire solitaire. |||||||ソリティア| ||||||||solitaire لا، هناك لعبة تدعى سوليتر حرفيًَا (سوليترهي لعبة يلعبها شخص واحد فقط). Nein, da gibt es wortwörtlich ein Spiel namens Solitär ("einzeln"). Non, il y a un qui s'appelle littéralement "Solitaire". No, c'è un gioco che si chiama letteralmente Solitario. Hayır, ismi tam anlamıyla 'solitarie' (tek kişilik) olan bir oyun vardır.

Maybe a game is just a thing you do for fun. ربما تكون اللعبة شيء تفعله لمجرد الحصول على المتعة. Vielleicht ist ein Spiel nur eine Spaßaktivität. Peut-être qu'un jeu est seulement quelque chose que vous faites pour vous amuser. Forse un gioco è solo qualcosa che si fa per svago. Belki de oyun eğlence için yaptığınız bir şeydir.

But what about “who can stay quiet the longest” – لكن ماذا عن "من يمكنه البقاء هادئًا لمدة أطول" - Aber was ist dann mit "Wer kann am längsten den Mund halten?" - Mais que dire alors du "Roi du silence" - Ma allora "chi riesce a stare zitto più a lungo", Peki "kim daha uzun süre sessiz kalabilir"e,

the game that your parents used to use on long car trips? |||||||||||viaggi اللعبة التي اعتاد والداك على استخدامها في رحلات السيارة الطويلة؟ dieses Spiel, das deine Eltern immer auf langen Autofahrten gemacht haben? le jeu que vos parents utilisaient pendant les longs voyages en voiture ? il gioco che i vostri genitori vi facevano fare nei lunghi viaggi in macchina? anne babanızın uzun araba yolculuklarında oynadığı oyun, için ne dersiniz?

Or, like, Russian roulette? |||roulette أو، مثل، لعبة الروليت الروسية؟ Oder... naja, Russisch Roulette? Où comme la roulette Russe ? O, per dire, la roulette russa? Peki, ya Rus ruleti?

Or The Game of Thrones, where you win or you die? ||||troni|||||| أو لعبة العروش، حيث إما الفوز أو الموت؟ Oder Game of Thrones, wo du entweder gewinnst oder stirbst? Où The Game of Thrones, soit vous gagnez soit vous mourrez ? O il Gioco del Trono, dove si vince o si muore? Veya ya kazanıp ya da öldüğünüz Taht Oyunları için ne dersiniz?

When it comes to language, there's a lot to philosophize about. |||||||||哲学する| |||||||||to philosophize| عندما يتعلق الأمر باللغة، فهناك الكثير من الفلسفات حولها. Was Sprache anbelangt, gibt es viel zu philosopieren. Quand on en arrive au langage, il y sujet à beaucoup philosopher. Quando di tratta di linguaggio, c'è molto su cui filosofeggiare. Konu dil olduğunda, felsefe yapılacak çok şey vardır.

But one question that philosophers of language like to mull is the question of meaning. |||||||||méditer||||| |||||||||to think deeply about||||| لكن سؤالًا واحدًا يحب فلاسفة اللغة طرحه والبحث عنه هو السؤال عن المعنى. Aber eine Frage, über die Sprachphilosophen besonders gern nachdenken, ist die nach der Bedeutung. Mais il y une question sur laquelle les philosophes aiment réfléchir, c'est la question du sens. Ma una questione sulla quale i filosofi amano rimuginare è quella del significato. Filozofların üzerinde durmayı sevdiği bir soru ise anlam sorusudur.

What do words – like ‘game' or ‘red' or ‘banana' What do they mean? ||||||||banana|||| ماذا تعني كلمات - مثل ‘لعبة‘ أو ‘أحمر‘ أو ‘موزة‘؟ Was bedeuten solche Wörter - wie "Spiel", "rot" oder "Banane"? Quel sens donner à des mots comme "jeu" ou "rouge" ou "banane. Qu'est-ce qu'ils signifient ? Cosa significano davvero le parole, come "gioco", "rosso" o "banana"? 'Oyun' veya 'kırmızı' veya 'muz' gibi kelimeler neyi ifade eder?

How do we know what they mean? كيف نعرف ماتعنيه هذه الكلمات؟ Wie wissen wir, was sie bedeuten? Comment savoir ce qu'ils signifient ? Come facciamo a sapere cosa significano? Ne anlama geldiklerini nasıl biliyoruz?

And who gets to decide? ومن الذي يقرر؟ Und wer legt das fest? Et qui le décide ? E chi lo decide? Ve buna kim karar veriyor?

[Theme Music] [موسيقى الشارة] [Titelmusik] [Générique] [Sigla] [Jenerik müziği]

Language is one of our most nuanced and powerful tools. ||||||sfumate||| اللغة هي واحدة من أكثر أدواتنا دقة وقوة. Die Sprache ist eines unserer präzisesten und mächtigsten Werkzeuge. Le langage est l'un des outils les plus puissants et nuancés. Il linguaggio è uno dei nostri più strumenti più potenti e raffinati. Dil, bizim en çok kullandığımız ve en güçlü araçlardan biridir.

It takes all of the stuff that's swirling around in each of our lonely, isolated brains – all those thoughts – and transfers them into someone else's brain. |||||||qui tourbillent|||||||||||||||||| |||||||che girano|||||||||||||trasferisce||||| فهي تأخذ كل ما يدور في أدمغتنا الوحيدة والمنفردة في كل واحد منّا - كل تلك الأفكار- ثم تنقلها إلى عقل شخص آخر. Sie nimmt das ganze Zeug, das in deinem einsamen, vereinzelten Gehirn umherweht - Gedanken eben - und überträgt sie in das Gehirn von jemand anderem. Il prend toutes les choses qui tournoient dans nos cerveaux seuls et isolés - toutes ces pensées - et les transfère dans le cerveau de quelqu'un d'autre. Prende tutta la roba che sta vorticando in ognuno dei nostri solitari, isolati cervelli - tutti quei pensieri - e li trasferisce nel cervello di qualcun altro. Bizim yalnız ve ıssız beynimizde dönüp duran şeyleri -bütün o düşünceleri- alır ve başka birinin beynine aktarır.

Which is really, fabulously cool. It's like telepathy! |||素晴らしく||||テレパシー |||fabulosamente||||telepatia وهو شيء خرافي ورائع جدًّا، إنه مشابه لتوارد الخواطر! Was wirklich fabulös cool ist. Das ist wie Telepathie! Ce qui est vraiment fabuleusement cool, c'est comme de la télépathie ! Il che è davvero favolosamente figo. È come la telepatia! Gerçekten, inanılmaz bir şekilde havalı bir şey. Telepati gibi!

But with the extra step of actually speaking or writing. لكن بخطوة واحدة إضافية كالتحدث أوالكتابة. Nur mit dem Zwischenschritt, dass man tatsächlich etwas sagt oder schreibt... Mais avec l'avantage de pouvoir parler ou écrire. Ma con il passo aggiuntivo della voce o della scrittura. Tabii konuşma veya yazma adımıyla beraber.

But, how do words – a collection of sounds or written symbols – key into the mental concepts that we want to communicate? ||||||||||simboli|||||concetti||||| لكن، كيف تقوم الكلمات - وهي مجموعة من الأصوات أو الرموز المكتوبة - بإيجاد المفاهيم العقلية التي نريد إيصالها؟ Aber wie setzen sich Wörter - also Ansammlungen von Tönen oder Schriftzeichen - zu genau den geistigen Konzepten zusammen, über die wir etwas mitteilen wollen? Mais, comment les mots - une collection de sons ou de symboles écrits - saisissent nos concepts mentaux que nous voulons communiquer ? Ma, come fanno le parole - una collezione di suoni o simboli scritti - a inserirsi nei concetti mentali che vogliamo comunicare? Но как слова — набор звуков или письменных символов — входят в мысленные концепции, которые мы хотим передать? Peki, kelimeler -ses yığınları veya yazılı semboller- nasıl anlatmak istediğimiz zihinsel konseptlere karşılık geliyor? The naive understanding of what words mean is just that they're just whatever the dictionary says. |naive|||||||||||||| إن نسب معنى الكلمات إلى مايكتب في القواميس فهمٌ ساذجٌ لما تعنيه الكلمات Das naive Verständnis dessen, was Wörter Bedeuten, ist das was im Wörterbuch steht. la compréhension simpliste de ce que les mots signifient est qu'ils sont ce que le dictionnaire dit qu'ils sont. La comprensione ingenua di ciò che significano le parole è semplicemente quello che sta scritto nel dizionario. Наивное понимание того, что означают слова, заключается лишь в том, что они — это то, что говорит словарь. Kelimelerin saf anlayışı, sözlükte ne yazıyorsa o anlama geldikleridir.

But we know that's not totally true. لكن نعرف أن هذا ليس حقيقيًّا بشكل كلي. Aber wir wissen, dass das nicht ganz stimmt. Mais nous savons que ce n'est pas totalement vrai. Ma sappiamo che non è completamente vero. Но мы знаем, что это не совсем так. Ama bunun tamamen doğru olmadığını biliyoruz.

Think about the difference between words like ‘cat,' ‘kitty,' ‘mouser,' and ‘feline'. |||||||||||猫 ||||||||gattino|cacciatore di topi||feline فكر بالفرق بين الكلمات مثل ‘قطة‘،‘هرة‘، ‘صائد الفئران‘ و ‘السنور‘. Denk nur an den Unterschied zwischen Wörtern wie "Katze", "Kätzchen", "Mieze" oder "Felidae". Pensez aux différences entre les mots "chats", "minou", "chat de gouttière", et "félin". Pensate alle differenze tra parole come "gatto", "micetto", "cacciatopi" e "felino". Kedi, pisi, mouser (avcı kedi), ve feline (kedigil) arasındaki farkı düşünün.

Early 20th century German philosopher Gottlab Frege helped parse out this difference by drawing a distinction between what he called sense, and reference. ||||||||distinguer|||||||||||||| |||||Gottlab|Frege||analyze|||||||||||||| ساعد الفيلسوف الألماني جوتلوب فريجه في أوائل القرن العشرين في تحليل هذا الفرق عبر التمييز بين ما دعاه بالمدلول والمرجعية. Gottlob Frege, ein deutscher Philosoph des frühen 20ten Jahrhunderts, hat geholfen, diesen Unterschied zu umreißen, indem er in "Sinn" und "Bedeutung" (o. "Referenz") unterteilte. Au début du 20ème siècle, le philosophe allemand Gottlab Frege aida à analyser ces différences en faisant une distinction entre ce qu'il appelait le sens, et la référence. Un filosofo tedesco dell'inizio del ventesimo secolo, Gottlab Frege, ha aiutato a definire questa differenza distinguendo ciò che chiamava senso e riferimento. 20\. yy başında Alman filozof Gottlab Frege bu farkı ortaya çıkararak 'his' ve 'referans' olarak ayırmıştır.

The reference of a word is the object or concept that it's meant to designate. ||||||||||||||designare مرجعية الكلمة هي الكائن أو المفهوم الذي يعيّن معنى الكلمة. Die Bedeutung eines Wortes ist das Objekt oder Konzept, welches es darstellen soll. La référence d'un mot est l'objet ou le concept qu'il est destiner désigner. Il riferimento di una parola è l'oggetto o il concetto il cui significato vuole designare. Bir kelimenin "referansı" bir objeye veya konsepte hitap eder.

The reference of all these words is this. المرجعية لكل تلك الكلمات هو هذا. Die Bedeutung all dieser Wörter ist das hier: La référence de tout ces mots c'est ça. Il riferimento di tutte queste parole è questo. Tüm o kelimelerin referansı budur.

Sense, on the other hand, is the way in which the words tie us to the object or concept. ||||||||||||lient|||||| ||||||||||||legano|||||| أما المدلول فهي الطريقة التي تربطنا بها الكلمات إما بالكائن أو بالمفهوم. Jedoch bezeichnet Sinn die Art und Weise, wie uns Wörter an das Objekt oder Konzept binden. Le sens, d'autre part, est la façon dont chacun de ces mots nous lient à l'objet ou le concept. Il senso, d'altra parte, è il modo in cui queste parole ci legano all'oggetto o al concetto. Fakat "his," bizim kelimeleri o objeye veya nesneye nasıl bağdaştırdığımızla ilgilidir.

So, while the reference of each of these words is the same, they have different senses. |||||||||||||||sensi وعلى الرغم من تشابه مرجعية كل واحدة من هذه الكلمات، إلا أنها تحمل مَدْلولات مختلفة. Während die Bedeutung all dieser Wörter dieselbe ist, haben sie verschiedene Sinne. Ainsi, alors que la référence de chacun de ces mots est la même, ils ont des sens différents. Quindi, anche se il riferimento di queste parole è lo stesso, hanno sensi differenti. Bu nedenle tüm bu kelimelerin referansı aynı olsa da, verdiği hisler farklıdır.

A kitty might be a baby cat, or sort of fancy lap cat, |||||||||||genoux| |||||||||||grembo| فربما هرة تعني قطة صغيرة، أو نوع من القطط الراقية الجوالة. Ein Kätzchen mag eine Babykatze sein, oder so eine schicke Schoßkatze, Un minou peu être un bébé chat, ou une sorte de chat tout mignon, Un micetto può essere un piccolo di gatto, o un qualche tipo di stravagante gatto da grembo, "Pisi" bir bebek kedi, veya havalı bir kucak kedisiyken,

while a mouser might be a cat that lives in a barn and kills rodents for a living. |||||||||||grange|||||| |||||||||||fienile|||i roditori||| بينما قد يعني صائد الفئران القط الذي يعيش في الاسطبلات لقتل القوارض من أجل العيش. während eine Mieze eine Katze ist, die sich oft durch Mauzen bemerkbar macht. tandis qu'un chat de gouttière peut être un chat qui vit dans une grange et tue des rongeurs pour vivre. mentre un cacciatopi potrebbe essere un gatto che vive in un fienile e uccide roditori per mangiarli. bir "mouser" (avcı kedi) ahırda yaşayan ve hayatını fare avlamakla geçiren bir kedi olabilir.

So how do words get their meaning? إذًا كيف تكتسب الكلمات معانيها؟ Wie also bekommen Wörter ihre Bedeutung? Alors, comment les mots obtiennent leur signification ? Quindi, come fanno le parole ad ottenere il loro significato? Peki bu kelimelere nasıl anlam yüklenir?

A definition is traditionally understood as whatever meets the conditions for both necessity and sufficiency. ||||||||||||||suffisance ||||||||||||||十分性 ||||||||||||||sufficienza التعريف هو المفهوم التقليدي لاستكمال شرطي الضرورة والكفاية. Eine Definition wird herkömmlich als alles das verstanden, was die Bedingungen der Unerlässlichkeit und Genüge erfüllt. Une définition est une traditionnellement comprise comme tout ce qui dispose de deux conditions, la nécessité et la suffisance. Un definizione, tradizionalmente, è qualsiasi cosa rispetti contemporaneamente le condizioni di necessità e sufficienza. Geleneksel olarak "tanım," gereklilik ve yeterlilik şartlarını sağlayan herhangi bir şey olarak algılanır.

A necessary condition is what's needed – like, what must be present – in order for a thing to be a thing. فالشرط الضروري هو مانحتاجه - مثل، مالذي يجب توفره - لجعل الشيء شيئًا. Eine unerlässliche Bedingung ist was nötig ist - also was unbedingt vorhanden sein muss, damit eine Sache das ist, was sie ist. Une condition de nécessité est ce qui est nécessaire - ce qui doit être présent - pour qu'une chose soit une chose. Un condizione necessaria è ciò di cui c'è bisogno, ciò che deve essere presente, perché una data cosa sia quella cosa. "Gereklilik şartı" bir şeyin "şey" olması için neye ihtiyaç duyulduğu, neyin var olması gerektiğidir.

In order for X to be X. الشروط الضرورية التي يجب أن تتوفر في س ليكون س. Damit X genau X bedeutet. Pour que X soit X. In modo che X sia X. X'in X olması için.

A necessary condition of being a bachelor, for example, is that you must be unmarried. ||||||soltero||||||||no casado الشرط الضروري للأعزب، على سبيل المثال، هو أنه يجب أن يكون غير متزوجًا. Die unerlässliche Bedingung für einen Junggesellen ist zum Beispiel, unverheiratet zu sein. Une condition de nécessité pour être célibataire, par exemple, est de ne pas être marié. Una condizione necessaria dell'essere scapoli, per esempio, è quella di non essere sposati. Bekar olmak için gereklilik şartı, örneğin, evlenmemiş olmaktır.

A sufficient condition is something that's enough for X to be X, أما شرط الكفاية هو شيء كافي لكون السين سينًا، Eine genügende Bedingung heißt, dass etwas genug ist, damit X genau X bedeutet, Une condition de suffisance c'est quelque chose qui est suffisant pour que X soit X. Una condizione sufficiente è qualcosa che è sufficiente perché X sia X, "Yeterlilik şartı" X'in X olması için yeterli olan,

but it's not required for that thing to meet that definition. لكنه ليس مطلوبًا من هذا الشيء تحقيق ذلك التعريف. allerdings muss dieses Etwas diese Bedingung erfüllen, um die Definition zu erfüllen. Mais ce n'est pas essentiel pour cette chose d'avoir cette définition. ma non è richiesta a quella cosa per essere compresa in quella definizione. ama o tanıma ulaşması için gerekli olmayan şeydir.

For example, being born in the United States is a sufficient condition for being an American citizen. ||||||||||||||||ciudadano estadounidense على سبيل المثال، كونك مولود في الولايات المتحدة فأنت توفرت لديك الشرط الكافي لتكون مواطنًا أمريكيًّا. Zum Beispiel ist es eine genügende Bedingung ein amerikanischer Bürger zu sein, wenn man in den USA geboren wurde. Par exemple, être né aux Etats-Unis est une condition suffisante pour être un citoyen Américain. Per esempio, essere nati negli Stati Uniti è una condizione sufficiente per essere un cittadino americano. Örneğin, ABD'de doğmuş olmak Amerika vatandaşı olmak için yeterli bir şarttır.

But it's not a necessary condition, because people who weren't born in the US can still become citizens. ولكن ليس شرطًا ضروريًّا، لأن الناس الذين لم يولدوا في الولايات المتحدة يمكنهم أيضًا أن يصبحوا مواطنين. Aber es ist keine unerlässliche Bedingung, weil auch Menschen von außerhalb US-Bürger werden können. Mais ce n'est pas une condition de nécessité, car une personne qui n'est pas née aux Etats-Unis peut tout de même devenir citoyen. Ma non è una condizione necessaria, perché persone non nate negli USA possono ancora diventarne cittadini. Fakat gerekli bir şart değildir, çünkü ABD'de doğmuş olmayanlar da vatandaş olabilirler.

The long-standing view of definitions was that, if you can figure out both the necessary and sufficient conditions for something to be X, then you'll have your definition. كانت وجهة النظر طويلة الأمد للتعريفات كالتالي، لو خمنت كلا شرطي الضرورة والكفاية لشيء ما ليكون س، فستحصل على التعريف. Lange galt in puncto Definitionen das Credo, dass man eine Definition hat, wenn man unerlässliche und genügende Bedingungen des zu definierenden X finden konnte. Pendant longtemps, la façon de voir les définitions était celle-ici, si vous pouvez valider les conditions de nécessité et de suffisance pour quelque chose pour qu'elle soit X, alors vous aurez votre définition. Il punto di vista di vecchia data sulle definizioni diceva che, se è possibile definire le condizioni necessarie e sufficienti perché qualcosa sia X, allora quella sarà la definizione. Uzun süredir kabul gören tanım görüşü, bir şeyin X olması için hem yeterlilik hem de gereklilik şartlarına ulaşabiliyorsanız, tanımını yapmış olduğunuzdur.

That is, you'll have found the criteria that exclude all non-X's, but include all X's. |||||||||||||||X أي، حصلت على المعيار الذي يستبعد كل ماهو غير السينات، ويتضمن كل السينات. Das heißt, man hat die Kriterien gefunden, die alle Nicht-X ausschließen, und alle X einschließen. Autrement dit, vous avez trouvé les critères qui excluent tous les non- X de , mais comprennent tous les X . Cioè, avrete trovato il criterio che esclude tutto ciò che non è X, ma include tutto ciò che è X. Bu demektir ki X olmayanları eleyecek fakat X olanları içerecek bir kriter bulmuşsunuzdur.

If you're following me. إذا كنت تتابع ما أقول Wenn du mir folgen kannst... Si vous me suivez. Se mi state seguendo. Eğer beni takip ediyorsanız.

But 20th century Austrian-British philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein said this rigid concept of definitions doesn't actually work. ||||||Ludwig Wittgenstein|Wittgenstein|||rígido|||||| ولكن ذكر فيلسوف القرن العشرين النمساوي البريطاني لودفيغ فيتجنشتاين أن المفاهيم الجامدة للتعاريف هي في الحقيقة غير فعَالة. Doch Ludwig Wittgenstein, Österreichisch-Britischer Philosoph des 20ten Jahrhunderts sagte, dass dieses starre Definitionenkonzept nicht wirklich funktioniert. Mais le philosophe du 20ème siècle, Ludwig Wittgenstein dit que cette conception rigide des définitions ne marchait pas réellement. Ma Ludwig Wittgenstein, filosofo angloaustriaco del ventesimo secolo, diceva che questo concetto rigido di definizione in realtà non funzionava. Fakat 20. yy Avusturyalı-İngiliz filozof Ludwig Wittgenstein bu katı tanım kalıbının çalışmadığını söylemiştir.

For example, you just can't define the word ‘game' in a way that's going to make everybody happy. على سبيل المثال، لا تستطيع تعريف كلمة ‘لعبة‘ تعريفًا يرضي الجميع. Zum Beispiel kannst du nicht einfach das Wort "Spiel" so definieren, dass jeder damit zufrieden ist. Par exemple vous ne pouvez pas définir le mot "jeu" dans un sens qui satisfera tout le monde. Per esempio, non potete definire la parola "gioco" in un modo che faccia tutti contenti. Örneğin, 'oyun' kelimesini herkesi mutlu edecek bir şekilde tanımlayamazsınız.

Any definition you give, someone's going to come up with a counterexample – |||||||||||反例 |||||||||||controesempio فكلما أتيت بتعريف ما، سيأتي شخص بمثال مضاد له. Egal welche Definition du dir einfallen lässt... jemand wird ein Gegenbeispiel haben. Toute les définitions que vous donnez, quelqu'un vous en donnera un contre-exemple - Qualsiasi definizione diate, qualcuno se ne salterà fuori con un controesempio - Verdiğiniz her tanım için birisi karşıt bir örnek gösterecektir -

either some game that's excluded by the definition, وهو يكون إما لعبة يستبعدها التعريف Das wäre ein Spiel, welches die Definition nicht einschließt, soit un jeu qui est exclu par la définition, qualche altro gioco che è escluso dalla definizione, ya da tanımdan dışlanmış bir oyun,

or something that the definition includes that not everyone would agree is a game. أو إما شيء يتضمنه التعريف لكن لا يتفق الجميع على أنه يعد كلعبةٍ. oder etwas, das von der Definition eingeschlossen ist, aber was nicht alle als Spiel ansehen. ou quelque chose que la définition comprend que certaines personne affirmeraient qu'il n'est pas une composante du jeu. o qualcosa che la definizione include ma non tutti concordano sia un gioco. ya da tanımın içerdiği fakat oyun olarak kabul edilemeyen bir şey.

It took Andre and entire 10 minute episode to define games! ||Andre||||||| استغرق أندريه 10 دقائق كاملة لتعريف الألعاب في أحد حلقاته! Andre hat ein ganzes 10-Minuten-Video gebraucht, um Spiele zu definieren! Cela prit un épisode entier de 10 minutes à Andre pour définir les jeux ! Ad Andre c'è voluto un intero episodio da 10 minuti per definire i giochi! Andre'nin oyunun tanımını yapması 10 dakikalık bir bölüm aldı!

But the thing is, Wittgenstein said this doesn't matter! ومع ذلك، قال فيتجنشتاين بأن هذا الأمرغير مهم! Aber das Komische ist: Wittgenstein hat gesagt, das sei egal. Mais voilà, ce que Wittgenstein dit n'a pas d'importance ! Ma il fatto è, Wittgenstein diceva, che tutto ciò non importa! Şu var ki, Wittgenstein bunun önemli olmadığını söyledi!

Because, everyone knows what a game is! لأن كل شخص يعرف ماتعنيه كلمة لعبة! Denn jeder wüsste ja, was ein Spiel ist. Parce que, tout le monde c'est ce qu'un jeu est ! Perché, tutti sanno cos'è un gioco! Çünkü, herkes bir oyunun ne olduğunu bilir.

He pointed out that we learn and know the meaning of words أشار فيتجنشتاين بأننا نتعلم ونعرف معاني الكلمات Er merkte an, dass wir die Bedeutung von Wörtern lernen und kennenlernen, Il fit remarquer que nous apprenons et savons ce que les mots signifient Ha fatto notare che noi impariamo e sappiamo il significato delle parole O, kelimelerin anlamlarını öğrenmemiz ve bilmemizin

by hearing the way other members of our linguistic community use them. عن طريق سماع الطريقة التي يستعملها أفراد مجتمعنا اللغوي. indem wir hören, wie andere Mitglieder unserer Sprachgemeinschaft sie benutzen. en les entendants de la façon dont les utilisent les autres membres de notre communauté linguistique. ascoltando il modo in cui lo usano gli altri membri della nostra comunità linguistica. çevremizdeki dilsel komünitenin onları nasıl kullandığını duymamıza bağladı.

We hear Candyland, rugby, and Cards Against Humanity all referred to as games, ||キャンディランド|ラグビー||カード||||||| ||Candyland|rugby||||||||| نسمع بجزيرة الحلوى والركبي والبطاقات ضد الإنسانية بأنها كلها تشير إلى ألعاب، Wir hören, dass die Leute bei "Candyland", "Rugby" oder "Cards Against Humanity" von Spielen sprechen, Nous entendons Monopoly, Hearthstone, rugby, tout le monde sait que ce sont des jeux, Sentiamo che Candyland, rugby, e Carte contro l'umanità vengono tutti chiamati giochi, Candyland, ragbi, ve Cards Against Humanity'nin oyun olarak tanımlandığını biliyoruz,

so eventually our brains piece together what's common between them, في نهاية المطاف تقوم أدمغتنا بجمع القطع مع بعضها البعض لإيجاد القاسم المشترك بينها، weshalb unsere Gehirne das zusammensetzen, was sie gemein haben donc finalement, nos cerveaux assemblent ce qui est commun entre eux, e quindi alla fine il nostro cervello mette insieme ciò che c'è in comune tra loro, ve sonuç olarak beynimiz bunların ortak özelliklerini birleştiriyor,

in a recognition that Wittgenstein called family resemblance. |||||||類似性 حيث وضحها فيتجنشتاين بتشابه الأسرة. durch ein Erkennungsmuster, das Wittgenstein "Familienähnlichkeit" genannt hat. dans une reconnaissance que Wittgenstein appelle "ressemblance familiale" riconoscendo ciò che Wittgenstein chiamò "somiglianza di famiglia". tıpkı Wittgenstein'ın dediği "aile benzerliği" gibi.

You know how you can just see the relation between people sometimes? ||||||||relación||| مثل كيفية إيجادكم للتشابه بين الناس في بعض الأحيان؟ Kennst du das, wenn du manchmal einfach sagen kannst, in was für einen Verhältnis Menschen zueinander stehen? Vous savez, la manière dont vous voyez simplement les relations entre les gens parfois ? Avete presente come a volte riuscite a vedere la parentela tra le persone? Bazen bazı insanların akraba olduklarını görebilirsiniz, değil mi?

Rather than rigid definitions, Wittgenstein said word meanings are so-called cluster concepts. |||||||||||de grappes| |||||||||||クラスタ| |||||||||||conceptos de grupo| بدلّا من التعريفات الجامدة، قال فيتجنشتاين أن معاني الكلمة الواحدة تجتمع فيما يسمى بالمفاهيم العنقودية. Anstelle von starren Definitionen seien Wortbedeutungen, so Wittgenstein, sogenannte Cluster-Konzepte. Plutôt qu'avec des définitions rigides, Wittgenstein dit que la signification des mots sont des concepts de groupe. Wittgenstein diceva che i significati delle parole, piuttosto che rigide definizioni, fossero invece cosiddetti concetti aggregati. Katı tanımlar yerine, Wittgenstein kelime anlamlarının küme konseptler olduğunu söylemiştir.

There's no one element that everything in the cluster has in common, ||||||||gruppo||| حيث لايوجد عنصر داخل المجموعة لديه كل القواسم المشتركة، Es gibt kein einzelnes Element, das alle Teile des Clusters gemeinsam haben, Il n'y a pas un seul élément que tout le groupe a en commun Non c'è un singolo elemento che ogni elemento dell'aggregato abbia in comune, Kümede ortak bir element yoktur,

but they all share something with some other members of the group. لكن كلها تتشارك شيئًا مع بعض العناصر الأخرى للمجموعة. aber sie alle haben ein paar Dinge mit anderen Clusterteilen gemeinsam. mais ils partagent tous quelque chose avec avec d'autre membres du groupe. ma tutti condividono qualcosa con alcuni altri membri del gruppo. ama hepsi kümenin diğer elemanlarıyla ortak bir şey paylaşır.

It's sort of like you have your dad's nose and your mom's sense of humor, |||||||dad's = dad's||||mom's = mom's|||umorismo إنه شيء مشابه لامتلاكك خشم والدك وحس والدتك الفكاهي، Das ist irgendwie so, als hättest du die Nase deines Vaters und den Humor deiner Mutter, C'est comme si vous aviez le nez de votre père et le sens de l'humour de votre mère, Un po' come il modo in cui avete il naso di vostro papà e il senso dell'umorismo di vostra mamma, Bu tıpkı senin babanın burnunu ve annenin espri anlayışını,

and your sister has your mom's eyes and your dad's athleticism. ||||||||||atletismo وتمتلك أختك عيني أمك وطبيعة والدك الرياضية. und deine Schwester die Augen deiner Mutter und die Sportlichkeit deines Vaters. et que votre soeur avait les yeux de votre mère et l'athlétisme de votre père, e vostra sorella ha gli occhi di vostra mamma e l'atleticità di vostro papà. kız kardeşinin ise annenin gözlerini ve babanın atletik yapısını alması gibidir.

You and your sister don't really have much in common, but you do both resemble both parents. ||||||||||||||se parecen|| وفي الحقيقة، لاتمتلك أنت وأختك صفة مشتركة، بل كلاكما تشبهان والديكما. Du und deine Schwester habt nicht wirklich viel gemein, aber ihr ähnelt euren Eltern. vous et votre soeur n'avez pas réellement grand chose en commun, mais vous ressemblez tout les deux à vos parents. Voi e vostra sorella non avete in realtà molto in comune, ma entrambi assomigliate a entrambi i vostri genitori. Senin ve kardeşinin çok fazla ortak yanı yoktur, ama ikiniz de ebeveynlerinize benzersiniz.

But it's not like every concept in the cluster is equal. لكن ذلك لايعني أن المفاهيم الموجودة داخل المجموعة الواحدة متساوية. Das heißt aber nicht, dass jedes Konzept in diesem Cluster gleichranging ist. Mais ce n'est pas comme si tout les concepts dans le groupe étaient égaux. Ma i concetti dell'aggregato non sono tutti uguali. Fakat kümedeki her konsept eşit değildir.

The ones that everyone would accept are the paradigm cases – you can picture them in the center of the cluster. ||||||||casos paradigmáticos||||||||||| فالكلمات التي سيقبلها الجميع هي الحالات النموذجية، ويمكنك وضعها داخل مركز المجموعة. Nämlich sind die, über die sich alle einig sind, paradigmatisch - du kannst sie dir im Zentrum des Clusters vorstellen. Ceux que tout le monde accepteraient sont les cas du paradigme - vous vous les représenter au centre du groupe. Quelli che chiunque accetterebbe sono i casi paradigmatici - potete immaginarli al centro dell'aggregato. Herkes tarafından kabul edilmiş olanlar paradigmalardır - bunları kümenin tam ortasında düşünebilirsiniz.

And as you move to the outer edges you'll get fringe cases, the ones that some people would include in the group but others would exclude. ||||||||||marges||||||||||||||| ||||||||||境界的な||||||||||||||| |||||||bordes exteriores|||casos marginales||||||||||||||| وكلما انتقلت إلى حواف المجموعة الخارجية ستحصل على حالات هامشية، وهي الكلمات التي يود بعض الأشخاص تضمينها في المجموعة وقد يقوم أشخاص آخرون باستبعادها. Je näher du den Rändern kommst, umso häufiger triffst du auf Grenzfälle: solche, die einige in diese Gruppe einordnen, aber andere wiederum nicht. Et quand vous vous déplacez vers les bords extérieurs, vous obtenez les cas marginaux, que certains incluraient dans le groupe et que d'autre excluraient. E man mano che vi muovere verso i bordi esterni trovere casi limite, quelli che alcuni includerebbero nel gruppo ma altri escluderebbero. Dışarıya doğru çıktıkça fringe'ler (saçaklar) bulursunuz, bunlar bazı insanların gruba alacağı bazılarının da almayacaklarıdır.

Everyone will agree that football is a game, but there's going to be some disagreement about things like, سيتفق الجميع على أن كرة القدم لعبة، لكن ستكون هناك بعض الخلافات حول الأشياء مثل، Jeder wird zustimmen, dass Fußball ein Spiel ist, aber es wird sicher einige Uneinigkeit geben bei Dingen wie... Tout le monde se mettre d'accord sur le fait que le football est un jeu, mais il y a un désaccord sur des choses comme, Tutti concorderanno che il calcio sia un gioco, ma ci sarà del disaccordo su cose tipo, Herkes futbolun bir oyun olduğunu kabul eder, fakat bazı konularda anlaşmazlık olacaktır,

I don't know, knife fights, or how long you can hold your breath under water. لا أعرف، مبارزة السكين، أو كم من الوقت تستطيع فيها حبس أنفاسك تحت الماء. ich weiß auch nicht, Messerstechereien, oder wie lange man unter Wasser die Luft anhalten kann. les combats de couteaux, ou combien de temps tu peux rester sous l'eau sans respirer. non so, i combattimenti al coltello, o quanto a lungo potete trattenere il respiro sott'acqua. bıçak dövüşleri, suyun altında en uzun süre nefes tutma gibi.

And Wittgenstein said that's fine. قال فيتجنشتاين أن ذلك جيد. Und laut Wittgenstein ist das in Ordnung. Et Wittgenstein dit que ce n'est pas grave. E Wittgenstein disse che ciò va bene. Wittgenstein bunun kötü bir şey olmadığını söyler.

Language is a living phenomenon, and like most living things, there's going to be change and variation. ||||||||||||||||variación فاللغة هي ظاهرة حية، ومثل معظم الأشياء الحية، سيكون هناك تغييرات واختلافات. Sprache ist ein lebendiges Phänomen, und wie viele lebendige Dinge gibt es auch hier Wandel und Variation. Le langage est un phénomène vivant, et comme la plupart des êtres vivants, il subit des changements et des variations. Il linguaggio è un fenomeno vivo, e come la maggior parte delle cose viventi, presenta cambi e variazioni. Dil yaşayan bir olgudur ve çoğu yaşayan şey gibi değişim ve varyasyona maruz kalır.

But who gets to decide what words mean, or if a meaning is legitimate? لكن من الذي يقرر معنى الكلمة، أو مدى صلاحية المعنى؟ Aber wer darf bestimmen, was Wörter bedeuten oder ob eine Bedeutung legitim ist? Mais qui décide ce que les mots signifient ou si une signification est légitime ? Ma chi decide ciò che le parole significano, o se un significato è legittimo? Peki kelimelerin anlamına, veya bir anlamın geçerli olduğuna kim karar veriyor?

Here, Wittgenstein said, “meaning is use.” هنا قال فيتجنشتاين، "إن المعنى مرتبط بالاستعمال" Dazu sagte Wittgenstein "Bedeutung ist Gebrauch". A ce sujet, Wittgenstein dit, "la signification est l'utilisation" Qui, Wittgenstein dice, "il significato è l'uso". Bununla ilgili Wittgenstein, "anlam kullanımdır" demiştir.

In other words, as long as a linguistic community uses a word in a particular way, it has that meaning. بعبارة أخرى، طالما استخدم المجتمع اللغوي كلمة ما بطريقة معينة، فستحصل على ذلك المعنى. Oder anders gesagt: Solange eine Sprachgemeinschaft ein Wort auf eine bestimmte Weise benutzt, solange hat es diese Bedeutung. En d'autre termes, tant qu'une communauté utilise un mot d'une façon particulière, il a cette signification. In altre parole, fin tanto che una comunità linguistica usa una parola in un modo particolare, essa ha quel significato. Yani, bir dilsel komünite bir kelimeyi belirli bir şekilde kullanırsa, o kelimenin anlamı odur.

Watching the way words develop and change does suggest that Wittgenstein was onto something. بمشاهدة تطور وتغيّر الكلمات يشير ذلك إلى أن فيتجنشتاين كان على حق. Beobachtungen im Wortwandel lassen erahnen, dass Wittgenstein auf einer heißen Spur war. Observer la façon dont les mots se développent et changent suggèrent que Wittgenstein tenait quelque chose. A guardare il modo in cui le parole si sviluppano e cambiano, in effetti, si direbbe che Wittgenstein avesse intuito qualcosa. Kelimelerin gelişim ve değişimini izliyor olmamız Wittgenstein'ın haklı olduğunu gösteriyor.

I mean, ‘mouse' didn't used to mean that thing, but now it does. أعني، ‘فأر‘ لم تكن تعني ذلك الشيء، لكن الآن فهي تعني ذلك. Zum Beispiel hat "Maus" mal nicht das hier bedeutet, aber jetzt tut es das. Je veux dire, "souris" ne voulait pas dire ça avant, mais maintenant c'est le cas. Intendo, "mouse" una volta non significata quella cosa, ma oggi sì. Yani, eskiden "fare" o şeyi ifade etmek için kullanılmıyordu, ama şimdi kullanılıyor.

We make words up as we need them. نحن نؤلف كلمات جديدة كلما احتجنا إليها. Wir schöpfen Wörter so, wie wir sie brauchen. Nous créons les mots quand nous en avons besoin. Creiamo parole man mano che ne abbiamo bisogno. İhtiyacımıza göre yeni kelimeler üretiriz.

And at the same time, words also fall out of use, or take on entirely new meanings. وفي نفس الوقت، قد يبطل استعمال كلمات، أو تكتسب الكلمات معاني جديدة كليًّا. Und auf dieselbe Weise geraten Wörter in Vergessenheit oder nehmen komplett neue Bedeutungen an. Et en même temps, certains mots ne sont plus utilisés ou on des sens totalement différents. E allo stesso tempo, le parole cadono in disuso, o assumono significati completamente nuovi. Aynı şekilde, kelimeler kullanımdan çıkabilir, veya tamamen farklı anlamlar kazanabilir.

Now, this view of language assumes that meaning is tied to a particular linguistic communities. |||||||||liée||||| الآن، تفترض وجهة النظر هذه أن المعاني اللغوية مرتبطة بمجتمع لغوي معين. Diese Ansicht über Sprache nimmt also an, dass Bedeutung an eine bestimmte Sprachgemeinschaft geknüpft ist. Cette vision d'une langage suppose que la signification est liée a une communauté linguistique particulière. Ora, questa visione del linguaggio presuppone che il significato sia legato a specifiche comunità linguistiche. Şimdi, bu dil görüşü anlamın belirli bir dilsel komüniteye bağlı olduğunu söylüyor.

And a community might, or might not, span all of the speakers of that language. وقد يشمل مجتمع ما لكل متحدثي تلك اللغة أو قد لايشمل. Und eine Gemeinschaft kann jeden Sprecher einer Sprache mit einschließen. Et une communauté pourrait, ou ne pourrait pas, couvrir tout les locuteurs de cette langue. E una comunità potrebbe o meno coprire tutti i parlanti di quella lingua. Ve bir komünite, o dilin tüm konuşanlarını kapsayabilir, veya kapsamayabilir.

Think about the regional differences in words that might be specific to your town, or school, or group of friends, or family. فكر بكل الفروق الإقليمية في الكلمات التي قد تكون محددة لمدينتك، أو مدرستك، أو مجموعة أصدقائك، أوعائلتك. Denk nur an die örtlichen Unterschiede bei Wörtern, die eher in deiner Stadt, deiner Schule, deinem Freundes- oder Familienkreis üblich sind. Pensez aux différences régionales de certains mots qui peuvent être spécifiques à votre ville, votre école, votre groupe d'amis ou votre famille. Pensate alle differenze regionali nelle parole che potrebbero essere specifiche della vostra città, scuola, o gruppo di amici, o famiglia. Sizin bölgenize, okulunuza, arkadaş çevrenize, veya ailenize ait olan spesifik değişiklikleri bir düşünün.

And what about this: Do you and your best friend have code words – words that you use to talk privately, even when you're in public? |||||||||||||||||||en privado||||| وماذا عن هذا: هل تتحدث أنت وصديقك المفضل مستعينًا بكلمات مشفرة - كلمات تستخدمها للتحدث بطريقة سرية، حتى في الأماكن العامة؟ Oder wie wäre es hiermit: Benutzen du und deine besten Freunde Code-Wörter? Wörter, die ihr benutzt, um in der Öffentlichkeit unbehelligt zu sprechen? Prenez cet exemple : Est-ce que vous et votre meilleur ami(e) avec des mots de code ? - des mots que vous utiliser pour parler de manière privée, même quand vous êtes en public ? E che ne dite di questo: voi e la vostra migliore amica avete parole in codice - parole che usate per parlare privatamente, anche quando siete in pubblico? Şuna ne dersiniz: Siz ve en yakın arkadaşınız "kod kelimeler" - topluluk içinde özel şeyler konuşmanıza yarayan kelimeler kullanıyor musunuz?

Like, the two of you could be at a club, and one of you would say to the other: مثل، لو كنتما الاثنان في نادي، ويريد أحدكما أن يقول للآخر: Etwa, wenn ihr in einem Club seid, und die eine von euch sagt zur anderen: Vous pourriez par exemple, être dans une boite de nuit et l'un de vous diriez à l'autre : Tipo, voi due potreste essere in un locale, e una potrebbe dire all'altra Mesela bir kulüptesiniz, ve biriniz ötekine

“That guy at the bar is a total shoehorn” and the other one would know exactly what you meant? ||||||||râteau|||||||||| ||||||||persona forzada|||||||||| "هذا الرجل في الحانة نعل بشكل كلي" وسيعرف الآخر مالذي تعنيه بالضبط؟ "Der Typ an der Bar ist ein totaler Schuhlöffel" und die andere wüsste genau, was du meinst? " Ce mec au bar est une totale corne de chaussure " et l'autre comprendrait exactement ce que vous voulez dire ? "Quel tizio al bancone è proprio un calzascarpe", e l'altra capirebbe esattamente cosa intendete? "Bardaki çocuk tam bir ayakkabı çekeceği" diyor ve diğeriniz tam olarak ötekini anlıyor mu?

In that case, do those words, that have meaning specific to the two of you, في هذه الحالة، هل تعني هذه الكلمات، التي تحمل معنىً معينًا لكليكما، Bedeuten Wörter, wie in diesem Fall, denen ihr beide eine Bedeutung zugewiesen habt, Dans ce cas, est-ce que ces mots, qui ont une signification particulière à vous deux, In questo caso, queste parole, che hanno un significato specifico per voi due, Bu durumda, sadece sizin anladığınız spesifik anlamlar taşıyan kelimeler,

really mean what you say they mean, even if no one else agrees with you? ما أردت قوله ومقصده، حتى إن لم يتفق معك الأخرون؟ wirklich die Bedeutung, die ihr ihnen gebt, selbst wenn niemand anderes zustimmt? veulent réellement dire ce que dites qu'ils disent, même si personne n'est d'accord avec vous ? vogliono davvero dire ciò che voi intendete, anche se nessun altro è d'accordo con voi? kimse sizinle aynı fikirde olmasa bile, gerçekten söylediğiniz şeyi mi ifade ediyor?

And what happens if the two of you forget that meaning? ومالذي يحدث لو نسي كلاكما ذلك المعنى؟ Und was passiert, wenn ihr zwei diese Bedeutung vergesst? Et que ce passe-t-il si l'un d'entre vous oublie cette signification ? E cosa succede se voi due dimenticate quel significato? Peki ikiniz de o anlamı unutursanız ne olacak?

Is the meaning still there? هل سيبقى المعنى كما هو؟ Ist die Bedeutung dann noch da? La signification est-elle toujours là ? Il significato è ancora lì? Anlam halen orada mı?

Or does it only exist as long as someone uses the word that way? أم أنه لاوجود لذلك المعنى مالم تُستخدم الكلمة بتلك الطريقة؟ Oder gibt es sie nur, solange sie jemand so benutzt? Ou est-ce qu'elle existe uniquement tant que quelqu'un utilise ce mot de cette façon ? O esiste solo fin tanto che qualcuno usa quella parola in quel modo? Ya da sadece birileri o kelimeyi kullanırken mi var oluyor?

Let's bounce over to the Thought Bubble for a bit of Flash Philosophy. |vamos||||||||||| دعنا نزور فقاعة الفكر لاستكشاف اللمحة الفلسفية حول هذا الموضوع. Hüpfen wir doch mal rüber in die Gedankenblase für etwas Blitzphilosophie. Nous allons rebondir sur la bulle de pensée pour un peu de philosophie flash. Andiamo alla Thought Bubble per un po' di Flash Philosophy. Biraz Flaş Felsefe için Thought Bubble'a gidelim.

A linguistic community of two – like you and your friend – seems fairly plausible. ||||||||||||妥当な المجتمع اللغوي الذي يتكون من اثنين - مثل أن تكون أنت وصديقك - يبدو ممكنًا. Eine Zweier-Sprachgemeinschaft - mit dir und deiner Freundin, scheint recht plausibel. Une communauté linguistique de deux personnes, comme vous et votre amis, semble honnêtement plausible. Un comunità linguistica di due elementi - come voi e la vostra amica - è abbastanza plausibile. Bir dilsel komünite -sen ve arkadaşın- gayet mümkün gözüküyor.

But is it possible to have an entirely private language? لكن هل من الممكن أن تحصل على لغتك الخاصة تمامًا؟ Aber ist es möglich, eine komplett eigene Sprache zu haben? Mais est-il possible d'avoir un langage privé entier ? Ma è possibile avere un linguaggio completamente privato? Peki tamamen özel bir dil geliştirmek mümkün müdür?

Wittgenstein asked us to imagine that each of us has a box, and inside each box is something. طلب منا فيتجنشتاين أن نتصور أن لكل واحد منا صندوقًا، ويوجد شيء ما بداخل كل صندوق. Wittgenstein sagte, wir sollten uns vorstellen, jeder von uns hätte eine Kiste, und in jeder der Kisten liegt etwas. Wittgenstein nous demande d'imaginer que chacun d'entre nous possède une boite, et que dans chacune d'elle se trouve quelque chose. Wittgenstein chiede di immaginare che ognuno di noi abbia una scatola, e dentro ogni scatola ci sia qualcosa. Wittgenstein bizden hepimizin bir kutusu olduğunu, ve bu kutunun içinde bir şeyler olduğunu düşünmemizi istemiştir.

We all refer to the thing in our box as ‘a beetle,' but no one can see inside anyone else's box, ever. |||||||||||scarabée|||||||||| |||||||||||カブトムシ|||||||||| |||||||||||escarabajo|||||||||| نفترض أن الشيء الموجود داخل صناديقنا هو ‘خنفساء‘، لكن لا أحد يمكنه رؤية الموجود بصندوق الشخص الآخر أبدًا. Wir alle nennen das eine Ding in unserer Kiste "einen Käfer", aber niemand kann in die Kiste von jemand anderem schmulen. Niemals! Nous appelons tous à la chose dans notre boîte « un scarabée », mais personne ne peut voir la boîte de quelqu'un d'autre à l'intérieur, jamais. Tutti ci riferiamo alla cosa nella nostra scatola chiamandola "coleottero", ma nessuno può vedere dentro la scatola di nessun altro, mai. Hepimiz kutuların içindeki şeye bir "böcek" diyoruz, ama kimse asla diğerinin kutusunun içini göremiyor.

We all call our hidden thing a beetle, but we have no idea if the content of our boxes is the same. فنحن نسمي كل أشيائنا الخفية بالخنفساء، لكن ليس لدينا أي فكرة عن ما إذا كنَا نتشارك نفس محتوى الصناديق. Wir alle nennen den versteckten Gegenstand einen Käfer, aber niemand weiß, ob der Inhalt unserer Kisten der gleiche ist. Nous appelons tous notre chose cachée un scarabée, mais nous ne savons pas si toute ces boites contiennent la même chose. Chiamiamo la nostra cosa nascosta coleottero, ma non abbiamo idea se il contenuto delle nostre scatole sia lo stesso. Hepimiz sakladığımız şeye "böcek" diyoruz, ama kutunun içeriğinin aynı olup olmadığı hakkında bir fikrimiz yok.

Wittgenstein said there's no way we can meaningfully use the word ‘beetle' in this context, |||||||de manera significativa||||||| قال فيتجنشتاين أنه لاتوجد طريقة يمكننا بها استخدام كلمة ‘خنفساء‘ بشكل هادف في هذا السياق، Wittgenstein sagte, das wir das Wort "Käfer" in einem solchen Kontext niemals bedeutungsvoll einsetzen könnten, Wittgenstein dit qu'il n'y a aucune façon d'utiliser le terme scarabée de manière significative dans ce contexte, Wittgenstein diceva che in questo contesto non c'è un modo sensato per usare la parola "coleottero", Wittgenstein bu bağlamda "böcek" kelimesini anlamlı olarak kullanamayacağımızı söylemiş,

because we have no way of verifying what others mean when they use the word, and they have no way of verifying what we mean. |||||||||||||||||||||確認する||| ||||||verificando|||||||||||||||||| لأنه لايمكننا التحقق عما يقصده الآخرون عند استخدامهم للكلمة، ولايملكون طريقة للتحقق مما نعنيه عند استخدامنا للكلمة. da wir nicht sicherstellen können, was andere mit dem Wort meinen, und andere nicht sicherstellen können, was du meinst. car nous n'avons aucun moyen de vérifier ce que le mot signifie pour les autres quand ils utilisent le mot, et ils n'ont aucun moyen de vérifier ce qu'il signifie pour nous. perché non abbiamo modo di verificare ciò che gli altri intendono quando usando questa parola, e loro non hanno modo di verificare cosa intendiamo noi. çünkü diğerlerinin bu kelimeyle ne dediğini veya bizim ne dediğimizi onaylayamayacağımızı ifade etmiştir.

This is meant to illustrate how it's impossible to directly communicate our subjective experiences. وهذا يوضح كم هو صعب وغير ممكن التواصل مباشرة بتجربتنا الذاتية. Das soll veranschaulichen, dass es unmöglich sei, unsere subjektiven Erfahrungen direkt zu kommunizieren. Cela est supposer illustrer qu'il est impossible de communiquer directement nos expériences subjectives. Questo serve ad illustrare come è impossibile comunicare direttamente le nostre esperienze soggettive. Bu, bizim kişisel deneyimlerimizi direkt olarak aktarmamızın imkansız olduğunu göstermeye yarar.

We all use the word ‘red' to refer to the color we see when we look at a stop sign, فجميعنا نستخدم الكلمة ‘أحمر‘ للإشارة إلى اللون الذي نراه عندما ننظر إلى علامة قف، Wir alle nutzen das Wort "rot", um über die Farbe zu sprechen, die wir auf Stoppschildern sehen, Nous utilisons tous le mot "rouge" pour faire référence à la couleur que nous voyons sur un signe stop, Tutti usiamo la parola "rosso" per riferirci al colore che vediamo guardando un cartello di stop, Hepimiz dur işaretine bakarken rengi ifade etmek için 'kırmızı' kelimesini kullanırız,

but I have no way of knowing if you're actually seeing the same thing that I'm seeing. لكن لاتوجد لدي طريقة لمعرفة ما إذا كنت ترى بشكل فعلي نفس الشيء الذي أراه. aber wir können unmöglich sagen, ob du genau dasselbe siehst, was ich sehe. Mais je n'ai aucun moyen de savoir si vous voyez la même chose que je vois. ma io non ho modo di sapere se voi state davvero vedendo la stessa cosa che vedo io. fakat senin, benimle aynı şeyi görüyor olduğunu bilmemin hiçbir yolu yok.

I don't know if your pain feels like my pain or your love feels like my love. لا أعرف ما إذا كان الألم الذي تشعر به كالذي أشعر به أو ما إذا كان شعورك بالحب كشعوري به. Ich weiß nicht, ob sich dein Schmerz wie meiner anfühlt oder deine Liebe wie meine Liebe. Je ne sais pas si votre douleur se ressent comme la mienne, ou si votre amour se ressent comme le mien. Io non so se il vostro dolore si sente come il mio dolore, o il vostro amore si sente come il mio amore. Senin acının benim acım gibi, veya senin sevginin benim sevgim gibi olduğunu bilmiyorum.

Our minds are like boxes. عقولنا كالصناديق Unser Verstand ist wie eine Kiste. Nos esprits sont comme les boites. Le nostre menti sono come scatole. Akıllarımız kutu gibidir.

No one else can see what's inside. لا أحد آخر يمكنه رؤية مابداخلها، Niemand anderes kann sehen, was drin ist. Personne ne peut voir ce qu'il y a dedans. Nessuno può vedere quello che c'è dentro. Kimse içinde ne olduğunu göremez.

But here's the thing: it doesn't matter. لكن هذه النقطة لاتهم. Aber jetzt kommt's: Das ist egal. Mais voilà, cela n'a pas d'importance. Ma il fatto è che non importa. Ama şu var ki: bu bir sorun değildir.

Because ‘beetle' just means, ‘what's in the box.' لأن "خنفساء" تعني فقط "الشيء الموجود داخل الصندوق." Denn "Käfer" bedeutet einfach nur "Was ist der Kiste ist". Car "scarabée" signifie juste, "ce qu'il y a dans la boite". Perché "coleottero" significa solo "quello che c'è nella scatola". Çünkü "böcek," sadece "kutunun içindeki şey" demektir.

It could literally be a beetle, or it could be a fox! In socks! |||||||||||zorro||con calcetas قد تكون حرفيًَا خنفساء، أو قد يكون ثعلبًا! يرتدي الجوارب! Es könnte also wahrhaftig ein Käfer sein... oder ein Fuchs in Ringelsocken. Cela pourrait être littéralement un scarabée comme cela pourrait être un renard en chaussettes ! Potrebbe essere letteralmente un coleottero, o potrebbe essere una volpe! Coi calzini! Bu gerçekten bir böcek de olabilir, çorap giymiş bir tilki de!

The point is, we don't know if the color red in my mind is the same as the color red in your mind, because the color red is a beetle in a box. النقطة هي أننا لانعرف ما إذا كان اللون الأحمر في عقلي كالأحمر الذي في عقلك، لأن اللون الأحمر عبارة عن خنفساء في صندوق. Damit will ich sagen, dass wir nicht wissen, ob die Farbe Rot in meinem Kopf dieselbe Farbe ist, wie in deinem Kopf, denn die Farbe Rot ist ein Käfer in der Kiste. Ce que je veux dire, c'est que nous ne savons pas si la couleur rouge dans mon esprit est la même que dans le votre, car la couleur rouge est le scarabée dans la boite. Il punto è, non sappiamo se il colore rosso che ho in mente è lo stesso colore rosso nella vostra mente, perché il colore rosso è un coleottero in una scatola. Demek istediğim, senin aklındaki kırmızı renkle benim aklımdaki kırmızı rengin aynı olduğunu bilmiyoruz: çünkü kırmızı renk adeta kutudaki bir böcektir.

It's a label for what's in our minds. إنه علامة لما في عقولنا. Es ist ein Namensschildchen in unserem Kopf. C'est l'étiquette pour ce qu'il y a dans nos esprits. È una etichetta per ciò che abbiamo in mente. Aklımızdaki şeyler için bir etikettir.

So language, Wittgenstein said, can't refer directly to an internal state, |||||||||interna| إذًا اللغة، كما قال فيتجنشتاين، لاتشير بشكل مباشر للحقيقة الداخلية، Deshalb, so Wittgenstein, kann Sprache nicht direkt auf unseren inneren Zustand Bezug nehmen, Le langage, dit Wittgenstein, ne peut pas se référer directement à un état interne. Quindi il linguaggio, diceva Wittgenstein, non può riferirsi direttamente ad uno stato interiore, Wittgenstein diyor ki, dil, içsel bir durumu direkt olarak ifade edemez,

like what it's like to see the color red, or to experience pain. كالتي نراها في اللون الأحمر، أو التي نجرب فيها الألم. etwa wie es ist, die Farbe Rot zu sehen, oder Schmerz zu vernehmen. Comme comment c'est de voir la couleur rouge et d'expérimenter la douleur. tipo come sia vedere il colore rosso, o provare del dolore. tıpkı kırmızı rengi görmenin nasıl olduğu, veya acının nasıl hissettirdiği gibi.

Instead, it can only refer to the aspect of it that's publicly observable by other people. |||||||||||publiquement|||| |||||||||||públicamente|observable||| بل تشير فقط إلى الجانب الذي يمكن للآخرين وبشكل علني ملاحظته. Stattdessen kann es sich nur auf den Aspekt beziehen, der für alle anderen offen sichtbar ist. Au lieu de ça, il peut uniquement se référer à l'aspect qui est publiquement observable par les autres personnes. Invece, può solo riferirsi agli aspetti di esso che sono osservabili pubblicamente dalle altre persone. Bunun yerine, o sadece diğer insanlar tarafından gözlemlenebilir bir yüzünü ifade eder.

So, the word ‘pain' isn't the feeling of physical suffering, it's jumping on one foot and cursing when you stub a toe. ||||||||||||||||maudire|||se cogner|| ||||||||||||||||maldiciendo|||te golpeas||dedo del pie إذًا، فكلمة ‘ألم‘ ليست الشعور بالمعاناة الجسدية، بل هي القفز على قدم واحدة والشتم عند إصابة إصبع القدم. Deshalb ist das Wort "Schmerz" nicht das Gefühl des körperlichen Leids. Es ist das Springen auf einem Bein und das Fluchen, wenn du dir den Zeh anstößt. Ainsi, le mot "douleur" n'est pas un ressentiment de souffrance physique, c'est être à cloche pied en jurant quand vous vous tapez le petit doigt de pied. Così, la parola "dolore" non è la sensanzione di sofferenza fisica, ma il saltare su un piede e l'imprecare quando sbattete un alluce. Yani, "acı" kelimesi fiziksel acının verdiği his değil, parmağını bir yere çarptığında tek ayak üstünde zıplayıp bağırmandır.

It's rubbing your temples when you have a headache – the observable behaviors that are associated with it. |frotter||tempes||||||||||||| |frotar||||||||||||||| وهي فرك الصدغين عند الشعور بالصداع، هي السلوكيات التي يمكن ملاحظتها والتي ترتبط بالكلمة. Es ist das Rubbeln deiner Schläfen bei Kopfschmerzen - das beobachtbare Verhalten, das damit verbunden wird. C'est masser vos tempes quand vous avez une migraine - les comportements observables auquel on peut l'associer. È sfregarsi le tempie quando avete mal di testa - il comportamento osservabile ad esso associato. Baş ağrın olduğunda alnını ovman, ve bununla ilgili diğer gözlemlenebilir hareketlerdir.

Thanks, Thought Bubble! Now I want to propose an experiment. شكرًا، فقاعة الفكر! والآن أريد اقتراح تجربة. Danke, Gedankenblase. Jetzt will ich dir ein Experiment unterbreiten: Merci, bulle de pensée. Maintenant je veux proposer une expérience. Grazie, Thought Bubble! Ora voglio proporre un esperimento. Teşekkürler, Thought Bubble! Şimdi, bir deney yapmak istiyorum.

If use is meaning, you should be able to give a word meaning by using it, right? إذا كان الاستخدام يرتبط بالمعنى، فأنت قادرٌ على إعطاء كلمة ما معنى باستخدامها، صحيح؟ Wenn Gebrauch Bedeutung ist, solltest du in der Lage sein, einem Wort Bedeutung zu geben, wenn du es gebrauchst, richtig? Si l'utilisation est la signification, vous pourriez être capable de donner un sens à un mot en l'utilisant n'est-ce pas ? Se l'uso è significato, dovreste essere in grado di dare un certo significato ad una parola usandola, giusto? Eğer kullanım anlam ise, bir kelimeye onu kullanarak bir anlam verebiliriz, değil mi?

At least, if you can convince a linguistic community to go there with you. على الأقل، إذا استطعت إقناع المجتمع اللغوي للقيام بذلك معك! Zumindest, wenn du eine Sprachgemeinschaft damit überzeugen kannst. Du moins, si vous parvenez à convaincre une communauté linguistique de l'utiliser avec vous. Almeno, se potete convincere una comunità linguistica a seguirvi per questa strada. En azından, bir dilsel komüniteyi bunu yapmaya ikna edersek.

So let's try it. إذًا دعنا نجرب: Probieren wir es also aus. Alors essayons. Quindi proviamoci. O zaman, deneyelim.

If every Crash Course viewer starts referring to bananas as chom choms, can we make it catch on? ||||espectador de Crash Course||||bananas||chom choms|choms|||||| إذا بدأ كل مشاهد لكراش كورس باستخدام تشوم تشوم للإشارة إلى الموز، هل يمكننا استخدامها بشكل دائم؟ Wenn jetzt jeder Crash-Course-Zuschauer zu Bananen Chom Choms sagt, wird es sich dann durchsetzen? Si tout les viewer de Crash Cours commencent à utiliser "Chom choms" pour remplacer "bananes", nous pourrions réussir ? Se ogni spettatore di Crash Course comincia a riferirsi alle banane come chom choms, possiamo far sì che prenda piede? Eğer her Crash Course izleyicisi, muzlara "chom choms" demeye başlarsa, bunu yayabilir miyiz?

Can we create meaning?! هل يمكننا اختراع معنى لهذه الكلمة؟! Können wir Bedeutung erschaffen? Pouvons nous créer une signification ?! Possiamo creare significato? Yeni bir anlam yaratabilir miyiz?!

We'll have to stay tuned for the answer to that one, but in the meantime, we can think about what might happen. يجب علينا ترقّب حدوث النتائج، ولكن في هذهِ الأثناء، يمكننا افتراض إمكانية حدوث ذلك. Wir bleiben dran an der Antwort darauf, aber währenddessen können wir spekulieren, was passieren könnte. Nous devrons nous tenir au courant pour la réponse à cette question, mais pendant ce temps là, nous pouvons réfléchir à ce qui pourrait arriver. Dovremo rimanere sintonizzati per la risposta, ma nel frattempo, possiamo pensare a cosa potrebbe accadere. Bunun için biraz beklememiz gerekecek, ama bu esnada, ne olacağına dair fikir yürütebiliriz.

And to do that, we need to make a distinction between two different types of meaning. ولتطبيق ذلك، يجب علينا التمييز بين نوعين مختلفين من المعنى. Und dafür müssen wir eine Unterscheidung zwischen zwei Arten von Bedeutung machen. Et pour ce faire, nous devons faire une distinction entre deux types de significations. E per farlo, dobbiamo fare una distinzione tra due diversi tipi di significato. Bunun için, iki tür anlam arasındaki farkı belirtmemiz gerekir.

When people communicate verbally, there's speaker meaning, which is what the speaker intends when using a word. |||verbalmente|||||||||intenta comunicar|||| وعندما يتواصل الأشخاص لفظيًّا، فإنه يوجد معنى المتحدث، وهو الذي يقصده المتحدث عند استخدامه للكلمة. Wenn Menschen verbal kommunizieren, gibt es Sprecherbedeutung, also die Bedeutung, die ein Sprecher meint, wenn er ein Wort benutzt. Lorsque les gens communiquent verbalement , il y a la signification du locuteur , qui est ce que le locuteur entend par l'utilisation d'un mot Quando le persone comunicano verbalmente, c'è il significato del parlante, che è ciò che intende chi parla quando usa una parola. İnsanlar sözel olarak anlaşırken, bir konuşmacı anlamı vardır, bu, konuşmacının bir kelimeyi kullanırken ne anlatmak istediğidir.

And then there's audience meaning, which is what the audience understands. ||||||||||comprende ثم معنى المتلقي، وهو الذي يفهمه المستمع. Und dann gibt es Rezipientenbedeutung, was das ist, was der Empfänger versteht. Et il y a la signification de l'audience, qui est ce que l'audience comprend. E poi c'è il significato dell'ascoltatore, ciò che capisce chi ascolta. Bir de dinleyici anlamı vardır, bu da dinleyicinin ne anladığıdır.

Since the whole point of language is communication, our goal is for speaker meaning and audience meaning to match up. طالما أن الهدف الأساسي من اللغة هو التواصل، فهدفنا هو المقاربة بين معنى المتحدث ومعنى المتلقي. Da der gesamte Sinn von Sprache in der Kommunikation liegt, ist es unser Ziel, dass Sprecher- und Rezipientenbedeutung gut zueinander passen. Comme le but du langage est la communication, notre but est que les significations du locuteur et de l'audience correspondent. Dal momento che lo scopo principale del linguaggio è la comunicazione, l'obiettivo è che il significato del parlante e quello dell'ascoltatore coincidano. Dilin bütün işlevi iletişim kurmak olduğu için, bizim hedefimiz konuşmacı ve dinleyici anlamlarının aynı olmasıdır.

But, as anyone who's ever, like, had a conversation, knows, this doesn't always work out. لكن كما يعرف أي شخص خاض محادثة ما -مثلًا- أن ذلك لايحدث دائمًا. Aber, wie jeder, der schon mal eine Unterhaltung geführt hat, weiß, klappt das nicht immer. Mais, toute personne ayant déjà eu une conversation, sait que cela ne marche pas toujours. Ma, come sanno tutti quelli che, tipo, hanno mai avuto una conversazione, ciò non va sempre a buon fine. Ama iletişim kurmuş herhangi birinin bildiği gibi, bu her zaman olmaz.

Like, Billy tells Bobby that he likes Sally. |Billy||Bobby||||Sally مثلًا، يخبر بيلي بوبي أنه معجب بسالي. Zum Beispiel sagt Billy Bobby, dass er Sally mag. Imaginons, Billy dit à Bobby qu'il adore Sally. Ad esempio, Billy dice a Bobby che gli piace Sally. Mesela, Billy, Bobby'e Sally'i sevdiğini söyler.

Billy, the speaker, means that he likes Sally as a friend. بيلي،المتحدث، يعني أنه معجب بسالي كصديقة. Billy, der spreche, meint, dass er Sally als gute Freundin mag. Billy, le locuteur, veut dire qu'il adore Sally comme amie. Billy, il parlante, intende che gli piace Sally come amica. Billy, yani konuşmacı, Sally'i arkadaş olarak sevdiğini belirtmiştir.

Bobby, the audience, takes Billy's statement to be a profession of, like, you know, like-like. ||||||||||||||comme| ||||de Billy||||||||||| ولكن بوبي، المتلقي، أخذ كلام بيلي على أنه تصريح بالحب. Bobby, der Empfänger, versteht Billys Aussage als Ausdruck des... nun... du weißt schon... "Mögen"-Mögens... Bobby, l'audience, prend la déclaration de Billy comme " Je suis amoureux de Sally" Bobby, l'ascoltatore, prende l'affermazione di Billy come una dichiarazione che, sai, mi piace-piace. Bobby, dinleyici, Billy'nin sözlerini başka türlü algılar, bildiğiniz gibi, sevmek-sevmek.

So Bobby then goes and tells Sally that Billy like-likes her, when in fact Billy actually like-likes Suzy, and pretty soon, you know how it goes. Tears. ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||larmes |||||||||||||||||||Suzy||||||||| فقام بوبي بإخبار سالي أن بيلي معجب بها، بينما في الحقيقة بيلي معجب بسوزي. ولاحقًا، تعرف مالذي يحصل، ستنهمر دموع. Also geht Bobby zu Sally und sagt ihr, dass Billy sie "mag", obwohl Billy eigentlich eher Suzy "mag", und sehr bald, du weißt, was läuft... Tränen. Alors Bobby va voir Sally et lui dit que Billy l'adore au sens sentimentale du terme, alors qu'en réalité, Billy a réellement des sentiments pour Sally. Vous savez comment ça se termine. Larmes. Così Bobby va e dice a Sally che piace-piace a Billy, quando in realtà a Billy piace-piace Suzy, e, in poco tempo, sapete come va. Lacrime. Bobby gider ve Sally'e Billy'nin onu sevdiğini söyler fakat aslında Billy Suzy'den hoşlanıyordur, ve sonra, bilirsiniz. Göz yaşları.

The point is, that even with a simple word that we all think we understand, like ‘like,' الفكرة الأساسية هي، أنه حتى مع الكلمات البسيطة التي نظن أننا نفهمها مثل كلمة "الإعجاب" Das heißt, dass selbst bei einem so simplen Wort wie "mögen", von dem wir alle denken, es zu verstehen, Ce que je veux dire c'est qu'avec un mot simple que nous pensons tous comprendre comme "adorer", Il punto è, anche su una parola semplice che tutti crediamo di capire, come "piace", Demeye çalıştığım şu, hepimizin anladığımızı sandığımız "hoşlanmak" kelimesiyle bile,

speaker meaning and audience meaning can fail to connect. قد لايتم التواصل بين معنى المتحدث ومعنى المتلقي. Sprechermeinung und Rezipientenmeinung nicht immer Hand in Hand gehen. la signification du locuteur et cette de l'audience peuvent ne pas réussir à correspondre. il significato del parlante e quello dell'ascoltatore possono non combaciare. konuşmacı anlamı ve dinleyici anlamı ters düşebilir.

When we get into more complicated or nuanced words, or when we try to invent a new word, like chom chom, وإذا خضنا في كلمات أكثر دقةً وتعقيدًا، أو عندما نحاول استحداث كلمة جديدة، مثل تشوم تشوم، Wenn wir uns kompliziertere oder nuancierte Wörter ansehen, oder wenn wir versuchen, ein neues Wort wie Chom Chom zu erfinden, Quand nous entrons dans des mots plus compliqués et nuancés, ou quand nous essayons d'inventer des mots comme chom chom, Quanto usiamo parole più complicate o sfumate, o quando tentiamo di inventare una nuova parola, come chom chom, Daha karmaşık ve zorlu kelimelere geldiğimizde, veya "chom chom" gibi yeni bir kelime üretmeye çalıştığımızda ise,

we're likely to run into some pretty high-level speaker-meaning/audience-meaning confusion. |||||||||||||confusión de significado فإننا نواجه مستوىً عالٍ من الالتباس بين معنى المتحدث والمتلقي. ist es nicht unwahrscheinlich, dass wir in ein hochgradig verwirrendes Sprecher-Rezipienten-Bedeutungs-Schlamassel geraten. nous nous lançons dans la possibilité de confusions entre locuteur et audience assez élevées. probabilmente incorreremo in una gran bella confusione tra i significati del parlante e dell'ascoltatore. konuşmacı ve dinleyici anlamları arasında üst düzey çatışmalarla karşılaşmamız olasıdır.

But for now, we learned about meaning. إلى الآن، تعلمنا المعنى. Aber für den Moment reicht es, etwas über Bedeutung gelernt zu haben. Mais pour le moment, nous avons appris sur la signification. Ma per ora, abbiamo imparato il significato. Şimdilik, anlamı öğrendik.

We talked about sense and reference, beetles in boxes, and language games. ||||||escarabajos||||| تحدثنا عن المدلول والمرجعية وصناديق الخنافس والألعاب اللغوية. Wir haben über Sinn und Bedeutung gesprochen, Käfer in Kisten und Sprachspiele. Nous avons parlé du sens et de la référence, des scarabées en boites, et des jeux de langages. Abbiamo parlato di senso e riferimento, coleotteri nelle scatole, e giochi di linguaggio. His ve referans, kutudaki böcekler, ve dil oyunlarıyla ilgili konuştuk.

And we learned that bananas are called chom choms. وتعلمنا أيضًا أن الموزة تسمى تشوم تشوم. Und wir haben gelernt, dass Bananen Chom Choms sind. Et nous avons appris que les bananes étaient appelées chom choms. E abbiamo imparato che le banane si chiamano chom choms. Ve muzlara "chom choms" denildiğini öğrendik.

Repeat it with me: chom choms. رددوا معي: تشوم تشوم. Sprich mir nach: Chom Choms. Répétez après moi : chom choms. Ripetete con me: chom choms. Benimle tekrarlayın: chom choms.

Never say bananas again. لاتقولوا موزة مجددًا. Sag' niemals wieder Bananen. Ne dites plus jamais bananes. Non dite mai più banane. Asla muz demeyin.

Next time, we're going to talk about another linguistic concept – conversational implicature. |||||||||||implicature |||||||||||含意 |||||||||||implicatura conversacional في المرة القادمة، سنتكلم عن مفهوم لغوي آخر ألا وهو التعريض الخطابي. Nächstes Mal sprechen wir über ein anderes linguistisches Konzept: Konversationsimplikatur. La prochaine fois, nous allons parler d'un autre type de concept linguistique - l'implication conversationnelle. La prossima volta, parleremo di un altro concetto linguistico: l'implicatura conversazionale. Bir sonraki bölümde başka bir dilsel konsept üzerine konuşacağız: iletişimsel gönderimler.

Crash Course Philosophy is produced in association with PBS Digital Studios. تُنتج فلسفة كراش كورس بالتعاون مع استديوهات بي سي أيه. Crash Course Philosophy wird produziert in Verbindung mit PBS Digital Studios. Crash Course Philosophy est produit en association avec PBS Digital Studios. Crash Course Philosophy è prodotto in associazione con PBS Digital Studios. Crash Course Felsefe PBS Digital Studios ile üretilmiştir.

You can head over to their channel to check out a playlist of the latest episodes from shows like يمكنك زيارة قناتهم للإطلاع على قائمة تشغيل آخر حلقات البرامج مثل Ihr könnt auf deren Channel rüberschauen und eine Playliste checken mit den neuesten Folgen von Shows wie Vous pouvez cliquer sur leur chaine pour voir une playlist des derniers épisodes d'émissions comme Potete andare sul loro canale per controllare la playlist gli ultimi episodi di show come Onların kanalına giderek şöyle programlardan oluşmuş çalma listelerine bakabilirsiniz:

PBS Idea Channel, It's Okay to be Smart, and Physics Girl. |||||||||physique| |||||||||física| قناة بي سي أيه آيديا، إتز أوكي تو بي سمارت، وفيزيكس جيرل. PBS Idea Channel, It's Okay to be Smart und Physics Girl. PBS idea Channel, It's Okay to be Smart, et Physics Girl. PBS Idea Channel, It's Okay to be Smart, e Physics Girl. PBS Idea Channel, It's Okay to be Smart, and Physics Girl.

This episode of Crash Course was filmed in the Doctor Cheryl C. Kinney Crash Course Studio صُوّرت هذه الحلقة من كراش كورس في استديو دكتور كيرل سي. كيني كراش كورس Diese Folge von Crash Course wurde gefilmt im Doctor-Cheryl-C.-Kinney-Crash-Course-Studio Cet épisode de Crash Course a été filmé dans le studio Crash Course du Docteur Cheryl C. Kinney Questo episodio di Crash Course è stato filmato nel Doctor Cheryl C. Kinney Crash Course Studio Crash Course'un bu bölümü Doctor Cheryl C. Kinney Crash Course Studio'da

with the help of all of these awesome people بمساعدة كل هؤلاء الأشخاص الرائعين mit der Hilfe all dieser wundervollen Menschen avec l'aide de toute ces personnes géniales con l'aiuto di tutte queste grandiose persone bu harika insanların yardımıyla çekildi.

and our equally fantastic graphics team is Thought Cafe. ترجمة: فريق أترجم @autrjim وفريق الرسومات التوضيحية الجميل ثوت كيف. und unser gleichermaßen fantastisches Graifkteam ist Thought Cafe. et notre équipe de graphique tout autant fantastique "Thought Cafe". e il nostro ugualmente fantastico team grafico è Thought Cafe. Ve aynı harikalıkta olan grafik ekibimiz: Thought Cafe.